{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,9]],"date-time":"2026-03-09T21:42:54Z","timestamp":1773092574220,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":49,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"22","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,11,18]],"date-time":"2024-11-18T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1731888000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Academy of Medical Sciences under the Global Challenges Research Fund (GCRF) Scheme","award":["GCRFNG\\100125"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["GCRFNG\\100125"]}]},{"name":"Academy of Medical Sciences under the Global Challenges Research Fund (GCRF) Scheme","award":["FF\\1920\\1\\30"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["FF\\1920\\1\\30"]}]},{"name":"Academy of Medical Sciences under the Global Challenges Research Fund (GCRF) Scheme","award":["EP\/P006701\/1"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["EP\/P006701\/1"]}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100000287","name":"UK\u2019s Royal Academy of Engineering","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["GCRFNG\\100125"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["GCRFNG\\100125"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100000287","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100000287","name":"UK\u2019s Royal Academy of Engineering","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["FF\\1920\\1\\30"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["FF\\1920\\1\\30"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100000287","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100000287","name":"UK\u2019s Royal Academy of Engineering","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["EP\/P006701\/1"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["EP\/P006701\/1"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100000287","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council","award":["GCRFNG\\100125"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["GCRFNG\\100125"]}]},{"name":"Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council","award":["FF\\1920\\1\\30"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["FF\\1920\\1\\30"]}]},{"name":"Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council","award":["EP\/P006701\/1"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["EP\/P006701\/1"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Materials"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Friction and wear characteristics play a critical role in the functionality and durability of prosthetic sockets, which are essential components in lower-limb prostheses. Traditionally, these sockets are manufactured from bulk polymers or composite materials reinforced with advanced carbon, glass, and Kevlar fibres. However, issues of accessibility, affordability, and sustainability remain, particularly in less-resourced regions. This study investigates the potential of self-reinforced polymer composites (SRPCs), including poly-lactic acid (PLA), polyethylene terephthalate (PET), glass fibre (GF), and carbon fibre (CF), as sustainable alternatives for socket manufacturing. The tribological behaviour of these self-reinforced polymers (SrPs) was evaluated through experimental friction tests, comparing their performance to commonly used materials like high-density polyethylene (HDPE) and polypropylene (PP). Under varying loads and rotational speeds, HDPE and PP exhibited lower coefficients of friction (COF) compared to SrPLA, SrPET, SrGF, and SrCF. SrPLA recorded the highest average COF of 0.45 at 5 N and 240 rpm, while SrPET demonstrated the lowest COF of 0.15 under the same conditions. Microscopic analysis revealed significant variations in wear depth, with SrPLA showing the most profound wear, followed by SrCF, SrGF, and SrPET. In all cases, debris from the reinforcement adhered to the steel ball surface, influencing the COF. While these findings are based on friction tests against steel, they provide valuable insights into the durability and wear resistance of SRPCs, a crucial consideration for socket applications. This study highlights the importance of tribological analysis for optimising prosthetic socket design, contributing to enhanced functionality and comfort for amputees. Further research, including friction testing with skin-contact scenarios, is necessary to fully understand the implications of these materials in real-world prosthetic applications.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ma17225629","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,11,19]],"date-time":"2024-11-19T07:51:15Z","timestamp":1732002675000},"page":"5629","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":8,"title":["Self-Reinforced Composite Materials: Frictional Analysis and Its Implications for Prosthetic Socket Design"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"17","author":[{"given":"Yogeshvaran R.","family":"Nagarajan","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Engineering and Sustainable Development, De Montfort University, The Gateway, Leicester LE1 9BH, UK"},{"name":"Composite Research Group, University of Nottingham, Nottingham NG7 2GX, UK"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9615-4893","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yasasween","family":"Hewavidana","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Wolfson School of Engineering & Sustainable Development, Loughborough University, Loughborough LE11 3TU, UK"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Emrah","family":"Demirci","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Wolfson School of Engineering & Sustainable Development, Loughborough University, Loughborough LE11 3TU, UK"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2489-8914","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yong","family":"Sun","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Engineering and Sustainable Development, De Montfort University, The Gateway, Leicester LE1 9BH, UK"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9133-7896","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Farukh","family":"Farukh","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Engineering and Sustainable Development, De Montfort University, The Gateway, Leicester LE1 9BH, UK"},{"name":"Faculty of Engineering, Universitas Negeri Padang, Padang 25131, Indonesia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Karthikeyan","family":"Kandan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Engineering and Sustainable Development, De Montfort University, The Gateway, Leicester LE1 9BH, UK"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,11,18]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"422","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apmr.2007.11.005","article-title":"Estimating the prevalence of limb loss in the United States: 2005 to 2050","volume":"89","author":"MacKenzie","year":"2008","journal-title":"Arch. 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