{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,19]],"date-time":"2026-10-19T23:46:52Z","timestamp":1792453612345,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":52,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"24","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,12,11]],"date-time":"2024-12-11T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1733875200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Materials"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Timber\u2013concrete composites are established structural elements to combine the advantageous properties of both materials by connecting them. In this work, an innovative flexible adhesive connection in different configurations is investigated. Load-bearing capacity, stiffness, and the failure modes were first experimentally investigated by performing push-out tests. Subsequently, a numerical evaluation using ABAQUS 2017\/Standard software was carried out in order to develop a three-dimensional numerical model. The Cohesive Zone Model (CZM) is employed to represent the adhesive characteristics at the contact areas between the Cross-Laminated Timber (CLT) and concrete elements. Three different connection configurations were evaluated, each consisting of five push-out specimens. The study investigates the impact of bonding surface area and the alignment of prefabricated glue strips with the load direction on the connection\u2019s longitudinal shear load-bearing capacity, stiffness, and slip modulus. In addition, the impact of cyclic loads and the impact of time on displacements were analyzed. The average load capacity of the full surface connection (type A) is 44.5% and 46.2% higher than the vertical adhesive strips (type B) and the horizontal adhesive strips (type C), respectively. However, the initial stiffness of the tested joints depends on the orientation of the prefabricated adhesive fasteners, being approximately 20% higher when the bonding elements are aligned parallel to the load direction compared to when they are oriented perpendicularly.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ma17246055","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,12,11]],"date-time":"2024-12-11T06:44:05Z","timestamp":1733899445000},"page":"6055","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":11,"title":["Longitudinal Shear in Timber\u2013Concrete Composites with Flexible Adhesive Connections\u2014Experimental and Numerical Investigations"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"17","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4148-1491","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Klaudia","family":"\u015aliwa-Wieczorek","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Bridge, Metal and Timber Structures, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Cracow University of Technology, 31-155 Cracow, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8324-3611","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Armando","family":"La Scala","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Dipartimento di Architettura Costruzione e Design, Polytechnic University of Bari, 70126 Bari, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Wit","family":"Derkowski","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Reinforced Concrete and Prestressed Concrete Structures, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Cracow University of Technology, 31-155 Cracow, Poland"},{"name":"The Building Technology Department, Linn\u00e6us University, 352 52 V\u00e4xj\u00f6, Sweden"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5699-4492","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Eva","family":"Binder","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"The Building Technology Department, Linn\u00e6us University, 352 52 V\u00e4xj\u00f6, Sweden"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,12,11]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100030","DOI":"10.1016\/j.dibe.2020.100030","article-title":"Wood buildings as a climate solution","volume":"4","author":"Himes","year":"2020","journal-title":"Dev. Built Environ."},{"key":"ref_2","first-page":"627","article-title":"Timber-concrete composite elements with various composite connections. Part 2: Grooved connection","volume":"59","year":"2014","journal-title":"Wood Res."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"184","DOI":"10.2749\/101686617X14881932435295","article-title":"Three-dimensional modelling of notched connections for timber\u2013concrete composite beams","volume":"27","author":"Bedon","year":"2017","journal-title":"Struct. Eng. Int."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"De Santis, Y., Sciomenta, M., Spera, L., Rinaldi, V., Fragiacomo, M., and Bedon, C. (2022). Effect of interlayer and inclined screw arrangements on the load-bearing capacity of timber-concrete composite connections. Buildings, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/buildings12122076"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"257","DOI":"10.1680\/stbu.2010.163.4.257","article-title":"Stiffness of dowel-type fasteners in timber\u2013concrete joints","volume":"163","author":"Dias","year":"2010","journal-title":"Proc. Inst. Civ. Eng.-Struct. Build."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"120892","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2020.120892","article-title":"Experimental investigation on the long-term behaviour of prefabricated timber-concrete composite beams with steel plate connections","volume":"266","author":"Shi","year":"2021","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"119","DOI":"10.1617\/s11527-006-9154-4","article-title":"Timber-concrete-composite with an adhesive connector (wet on wet process)","volume":"40","author":"Brunner","year":"2007","journal-title":"Mater. Struct."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110719","DOI":"10.1016\/j.engstruct.2020.110719","article-title":"Discontinuous \u03c0-form steel shear connectors in timber-concrete composites. An experimental approach","volume":"216","year":"2020","journal-title":"Eng. Struct."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"114778","DOI":"10.1016\/j.engstruct.2022.114778","article-title":"Experimental and finite element studies of prefabricated timber-concrete composite structures with glued perforated steel plate connections","volume":"268","author":"Tao","year":"2022","journal-title":"Eng. Struct."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113125","DOI":"10.1016\/j.engstruct.2021.113125","article-title":"Mechanical performance of timber connections made of thick flexible polyurethane adhesives","volume":"247","author":"Sebera","year":"2021","journal-title":"Eng. Struct."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"La Scala, A., \u015aliwa-Wieczorek, K., Rizzo, F., Sabb\u00e0, M.F., and Zaj\u0105c, B. (2024). Flexible Polyurethane Adhesives: Predictive Numerical Model Calibration through Experimental Testing at Elevated Temperature. Appl. Sci., 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/app14051943"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107173","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apacoust.2019.107173","article-title":"Experimental study on the impact sound insulation of cross laminated timber and timber-concrete composite floors","volume":"161","author":"Zhang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Appl. Acoust."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lasowicz, N., Kwiecie\u0144, A., and Jankowski, R. (2020). Experimental study on the effectiveness of polyurethane flexible adhesive in reduction of structural vibrations. Polymers, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/polym12102364"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Da\u0148kov\u00e1, J., Mec, P., and Majstr\u00edkov\u00e1, T. (2016). Stiffness analysis of glued connection of the timber-concrete structure. Open Eng., 6.","DOI":"10.1515\/eng-2016-0028"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"401","DOI":"10.1080\/00218464.2013.836968","article-title":"Adhesively bonded hardwood joints under room temperature and elevated temperatures","volume":"90","author":"Fecht","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Adhes."},{"key":"ref_16","unstructured":"Cust\u00f3dio, J., Cruz, H., Negr\u00e3o, J., and Broughton, J. (2009, January 3\u20136). Thermal stability of epoxy and polyurethane adhesives and bonded joints used in the rehabilitation of timber structures. Proceedings of the Jornadas Chilenas De Estructuras De Madera, Concepci\u00f3n, Chile."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"135184","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2024.135184","article-title":"Moisture-induced stresses and damage in adhesively bonded timber-concrete composite connection","volume":"416","author":"Fu","year":"2024","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"371","DOI":"10.1016\/j.proeng.2015.06.160","article-title":"Opportunities and risks arising from the properties of FRP materials used for structural strengthening","volume":"108","author":"Derkowski","year":"2015","journal-title":"Procedia Eng."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Derkowski, W., and Walczak, R. (2021). Possibilities of Increasing Effectiveness of RC Structure Strengthening with FRP Materials. Materials, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/ma14061387"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"173","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijadhadh.2008.03.002","article-title":"A review of factors influencing the durability of structural bonded timber joints","volume":"29","author":"Broughton","year":"2009","journal-title":"Int. J. Adhes. Adhes."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3078","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2010.12.060","article-title":"Investigation on bonding between timber and ultra-high performance concrete (UHPC)","volume":"25","author":"Seim","year":"2011","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_22","unstructured":"Sch\u00e4fers, M., and Seim, W. (2008, January 2\u20135). Development of adhesive bonded Timber-UHPC Composites\u2013Experimental and theoretical investigations. Proceedings of the 10th World Conference on Timber Engineering, Miyazaki, Japan."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"167","DOI":"10.1016\/j.engstruct.2016.05.056","article-title":"Adhesive-bonded timber-concrete composites\u2013Experimental and numerical investigation of hygrothermal effects","volume":"125","author":"Eisenhut","year":"2016","journal-title":"Eng. Struct."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"51","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijadhadh.2016.10.005","article-title":"Long-term performance of adhesively bonded timber-concrete composites","volume":"72","author":"Tannert","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int. J. Adhes. Adhes."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"128375","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2022.128375","article-title":"The effect of adhesive amount and type on failure mode and shear strength of glued timber-concrete joints","volume":"345","author":"Giv","year":"2022","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"187","DOI":"10.1617\/s11527-021-01766-y","article-title":"Full-scale testing of adhesively bonded timber-concrete composite beams","volume":"54","author":"Fischer","year":"2021","journal-title":"Mater. Struct."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102490","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijadhadh.2019.102490","article-title":"Hybrid adhesively bonded timber-concrete-composite floors","volume":"97","author":"Tannert","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Adhes. Adhes."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Campilho, R.D. (2017). Strength Prediction of Adhesively-Bonded Joints, CRC Press.","DOI":"10.1201\/9781315370835"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"65","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijadhadh.2012.01.014","article-title":"Experimental and numerical investigations on adhesively bonded hardwood joints","volume":"37","author":"Tannert","year":"2012","journal-title":"Int. J. Adhes. Adhes."},{"key":"ref_30","first-page":"52","article-title":"Numerical modeling of wood-adhesive bond-line in mode II for spruce wood glued by various adhesives","volume":"8","author":"Sebera","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int. J.-Wood Des. Technol."},{"key":"ref_31","unstructured":"Li, G., and Feng, X. (2022). Chapter 4\u2014A modular concept for the solid-state healing of polymer resins and composites. Woodhead Publishing Series in Composites Science and Engineering, Recent Advances in Smart Self-Healing Polymers and Composites (Second Edition), Woodhead Publishing."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1072","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mechmat.2005.10.003","article-title":"A damage model for the simulation of delamination in advanced composites under variable-mode loading","volume":"38","author":"Turon","year":"2006","journal-title":"Mech. Mater."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1701","DOI":"10.1002\/nme.93","article-title":"Finite element interface models for the delamination analysis of laminated composites: Mechanical and computational issues","volume":"50","author":"Alfano","year":"2001","journal-title":"Int. J. Numer. Methods Eng."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1415","DOI":"10.1177\/0021998303034505","article-title":"Numerical Simulation of Mixed-Mode Progressive Delamination in Composite Materials","volume":"37","author":"Camanho","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Compos. Mater."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1503","DOI":"10.1016\/j.prostr.2020.10.123","article-title":"On the elastic properties of PVC foam","volume":"28","author":"Funari","year":"2020","journal-title":"Procedia Struct. Integr."},{"key":"ref_36","unstructured":"Carcaterra, A., Paolone, A., and Graziani, G. (2019). An Experimental and Numerical Study to Evaluate the Crack Path Under Mixed Mode Loading on PVC Foams. Proceedings of the XXIV AIMETA Conference 2019, AIMETA 2019, Rome, Italy, 15\u201319 September 2019, Springer. Lecture Notes in Mechanical Engineering."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nunes, T., Ribas, M.J.P., Akhavan-Safar, A., Carbas, R.J.C., Marques, E.A.S., Wenig, S., and da Silva, L.F.M. (2024). Fracture Analysis of Highly Flexible Adhesives: Cohesive Zone Modelling across a Wide Spectrum of Temperatures and Strain Rates. Polymers, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/polym16162383"},{"key":"ref_38","unstructured":"(1991). Timber Structures\u2014Joints Made With Mechanical Fasteners\u2014General Principles for the Determination of Strength and Deformation Characteristics (Standard No. EN 26891:1991)."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Szepty\u0144ski, P., Pochopie\u0144, J.G., Jasi\u0144ska, D., and Kwiecie\u0144, A. (2024). The Influence of the Flexibility of a Polymeric Adhesive Layer on the Mechanical Response of a Composite Reinforced Concrete Slab and a Reinforced Concrete Beam Girder. Polymers, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/polym16030444"},{"key":"ref_40","unstructured":"Zaj\u0105c, B. (2018). \u015acinane Po\u0142\u0105czenia Klejone Sztywne i Podatne Pracuj\u0105ce w Podwy\u017cszonej Temperaturze, Wydawnictwo Politechniki Krakowskiej."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kwiecie\u0144, K., Kwiecie\u0144, A., Stryszewska, T., Szumera, M., and Dudek, M. (2020). Durability of PS-Polyurethane dedicated for composite strengthening applications in masonry and concrete structures. Polymers, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/polym12122830"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"\u015aliwa-Wieczorek, K., and Zaj\u0105c, B. (2021). Rigid and Flexible Double Shear Lap Adhesive Joint at Elevated Temperature\u2014An Experimental Study. Polymers, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/polym13172873"},{"key":"ref_43","unstructured":"(2022). Eurocode 5 Design of Timber Structures\u2014Structural Design of Timber-Concrete Composites Structures\u2014Common Rules and Rules for Buildings (Standard No. CEN\/TS 19103:2022)."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Binder, E., Derkowski, W., and Bader, T.K. (2022). Development of creep deformations during service life: A comparison of CLT and TCC floor constructions. Buildings, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/buildings12020239"},{"key":"ref_45","unstructured":"(2002). Actions on Structures\u2014Part 1\u20131: General Actions\u2014Densities, Self-Weight, Imposed Loads for Buildings (Standard No. SS-EN 1991\u20131-1 2002)."},{"key":"ref_46","unstructured":"(2019). Boverkets Konstruktionsregler, BFS 2011:10 med \u00c4ndringar till och med 2019:1 (EKS 11) (Standard No. EKS 11 BFS 2011:10). ISBN 978-91-7563-649-8."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"36","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cemconres.2015.11.007","article-title":"Elastic and creep properties of young cement paste, as determined from hourly repeated minute-long quasi-static tests","volume":"82","author":"Pichler","year":"2016","journal-title":"Cem. Concr. Res."},{"key":"ref_48","first-page":"04016106","article-title":"Downscaling based identification of nonaging power-law creep of cement hydrates","volume":"142","author":"Pichler","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Eng. Mech."},{"key":"ref_49","unstructured":"(2022). Adhesives\u2014Designation of Main Failure Patterns (Standard No. EN ISO 10365:2022)."},{"key":"ref_50","unstructured":"(2001). Timber Structures\u2014Test Methods\u2014Cyclic Testing of Joints Made With Mechanical Fasteners (Standard No. EN 12512:2002)."},{"key":"ref_51","unstructured":"\u015aliwa-Wieczorek, K., Derkowski, W., and Binder, E. (2024, December 08). Short-term creep test of shear adhesive joints in Timber-Concrete Composites. Materia\u0142y Budowlane, Available online: https:\/\/www.materialybudowlane.info.pl\/images\/2024\/02\/s006-010.pdf."},{"key":"ref_52","unstructured":"Smith, M. (2009). ABAQUS\/Standard User\u2019s Manual, Version 6.12., Dassault Syst\u00e8mes Simulia Corp."}],"container-title":["Materials"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1996-1944\/17\/24\/6055\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T16:52:15Z","timestamp":1760115135000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1996-1944\/17\/24\/6055"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,12,11]]},"references-count":52,"journal-issue":{"issue":"24","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,12]]}},"alternative-id":["ma17246055"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ma17246055","relation":{},"ISSN":["1996-1944"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1996-1944","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,12,11]]}}}