{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,1]],"date-time":"2026-10-01T18:20:08Z","timestamp":1790878808135,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":67,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"10","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,5,10]],"date-time":"2025-05-10T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1746835200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Materials"],"abstract":"<jats:p>This study evaluates the effects of steel slag powder (SSP), fly ash (FA), and steel slag sand (SSS) on mortar compressive strength. A response surface methodology (RSM) based on central composite design (CCD) was employed to model 7-day, 28-day, and 91-day strength development, considering three quantitative variables: SSP, FA, and SSS. Statistical results confirmed the reduced cubic models were significant and predictive (R2 &gt; 0.97), with non-significant lack of fit and adequate precision. Experimental results revealed that SSP and FA negatively affected early-age strength due to dilution effects and low initial reactivity, whereas SSS slightly improved it by enhancing particle packing. At later ages, SSP exhibited nonlinear effects, where moderate dosages enhanced strength, while excessive replacement led to strength reduction. SSS showed a continuously positive contribution across all ages, particularly at 91 days. Perturbation plots, contour maps, and gradient analyses indicated that SSS played a dominant role at later stages and that maintaining a proper balance among supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs) and aggregate replacements is crucial. The developed models and response surfaces provide practical guidance for designing slag-based mortars with improved mechanical properties and enhanced sustainability.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ma18102203","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,5,12]],"date-time":"2025-05-12T06:17:08Z","timestamp":1747030628000},"page":"2203","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":6,"title":["Valorization of Steel Slag and Fly Ash in Mortar: Modeling Age-Dependent Strength with Response Surface Methodology"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"18","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6840-1236","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Xiaofeng","family":"Li","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"China Hebei Construction and Geotechnical Investigation Group Limited, Shijiazhuang 050227, China"},{"name":"Key Laboratory of Groundwater Conservation of MWR, School of Water Resources and Environment, China University of Geosciences (Beijing), Beijing 100083, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Chia-Min","family":"Ho","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Materials Science and Engineering, Beihang University, Beijing 100191, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Huawei","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"China Hebei Construction and Geotechnical Investigation Group Limited, Shijiazhuang 050227, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4408-8775","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Huaming","family":"Guo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Groundwater Conservation of MWR, School of Water Resources and Environment, China University of Geosciences (Beijing), Beijing 100083, China"},{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Biogeology and Environmental Geology, China University of Geosciences (Beijing), Beijing 100083, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Deliang","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"China Hebei Construction and Geotechnical Investigation Group Limited, Shijiazhuang 050227, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Dan","family":"Zhao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"China Hebei Construction and Geotechnical Investigation Group Limited, Shijiazhuang 050227, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0003-4181-7586","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Kun","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Earth Mechanics Institute, Colorado School of Mines, Golden, CO 80401, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,5,10]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"(2025). 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