{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,17]],"date-time":"2026-10-17T05:50:40Z","timestamp":1792216240558,"version":"4.4.0"},"reference-count":61,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"13","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,24]],"date-time":"2025-06-24T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1750723200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"National Natural Science Foundation","award":["52278242"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["52278242"]}]},{"name":"National Natural Science Foundation","award":["KZJSX.JS20230262KZJSX.TO.JS20230008"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["KZJSX.JS20230262KZJSX.TO.JS20230008"]}]},{"name":"Lets Innovation Foundation","award":["52278242"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["52278242"]}]},{"name":"Lets Innovation Foundation","award":["KZJSX.JS20230262KZJSX.TO.JS20230008"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["KZJSX.JS20230262KZJSX.TO.JS20230008"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Materials"],"abstract":"<jats:p>This study investigates the long-term durability and crystallization-induced degradation mechanisms of alkali-activated slag (AAS) mortars with varying water-to-binder ratios (w\/b, 0.4, 0.45, 0.5) under semi-immersion in 5 wt.% sodium sulfate solution. Through 360 d of exposure, the evolution of physical\u2013mechanical properties (mass change, open porosity, compressive\/flexural strength) and ion migration patterns (SO42\u2212, Na+, Ca2+) were analyzed to unravel the interplay between pore structure, ion transport, and crystallization-induced deterioration. Results demonstrated that higher w\/b ratios exacerbated surface crystallization and spalling due to accelerated ion transport and pore coarsening. Early-stage strength gains (up to 25.15% at 120\u2013180 d) stemmed from pore refinement via sulfate deposition and continued slag hydration. However, prolonged exposure triggered microstructural degradation, with open porosity increasing by 58.9% and strength declining by 30.6% at 360 d for a w\/b of 0.5 compared to a w\/b of 0.4. This was driven by crystallization pressure and the decalcification of hydration products. Ion migration analysis revealed SO42\u2212 enrichment in evaporation area and outward Na+ diffusion, establishing supersaturation gradients that aligned with crystallization damage progression. These findings provide critical insights for optimizing AAS mortar formulations to mitigate sulfate crystallization risks in semi-immersed environments.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ma18132988","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,24]],"date-time":"2025-06-24T06:49:38Z","timestamp":1750747778000},"page":"2988","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["Effects of w\/b Ratio on Sodium Sulfate Crystallization Damage and Degradation Mechanisms in Semi-Immersed Alkali-Activated Slag Mortar"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"18","author":[{"given":"Zhenwei","family":"Zhou","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"China Communications Construction Company Ltd., Beijing 100088, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yuetao","family":"Qiu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Chongqing Jianyan Kezhijie New Material Co., Ltd., Chongqing 402761, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Peng","family":"Liu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Chongqing Jianyan Kezhijie New Material Co., Ltd., Chongqing 402761, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jianxiong","family":"Ye","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Materials Science and Engineering, Chongqing University, Chongqing 400045, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kunpeng","family":"Yin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Materials Science and Engineering, Chongqing University, Chongqing 400045, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3360-2484","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Linwen","family":"Yu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Materials Science and Engineering, Chongqing University, Chongqing 400045, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Changhui","family":"Yang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Materials Science and Engineering, Chongqing University, Chongqing 400045, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,24]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"122252","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2021.122252","article-title":"External ammonium sulfate attack in concrete: Analysis of the current methodology","volume":"277","author":"Martins","year":"2021","journal-title":"Constr. 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