{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,3]],"date-time":"2026-10-03T03:39:56Z","timestamp":1790998796771,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":66,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"15","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,2]],"date-time":"2025-08-02T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1754092800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Materials"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The global cement industry remains a significant contributor to carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions, prompting substantial research efforts toward sustainable construction materials. Lithium slag (LS), a by-product of lithium extraction, has attracted attention as a supplementary cementitious material (SCM). This review synthesizes experimental findings on LS replacement levels, fresh-state behavior, mechanical performance (compressive, tensile, and flexural strengths), time-dependent deformation (shrinkage and creep), and durability (sulfate, acid, abrasion, and thermal) of LS-modified concretes. Statistical analysis identifies an optimal LS dosage of 20\u201330% (average 24%) for maximizing compressive strength and long-term durability, with 40% as a practical upper limit for tensile and flexural performance. Fresh-state tests show that workability losses at high LS content can be mitigated via superplasticizers. Drying shrinkage and creep strains decrease in a dose-dependent manner with up to 30% LS. High-volume (40%) LS blends achieve up to an 18% gain in 180-day compressive strength and &gt;30% reduction in permeability metrics. Under elevated temperatures, 20% LS mixes retain up to 50% more residual strength than controls. In advanced systems\u2014autoclaved aerated concrete (AAC), one-part geopolymers, and recycled aggregate composites\u2014LS further enhances both microstructural densification and durability. In particular, LS emerges as a versatile SCM that optimizes mechanical and durability performance, supports material circularity, and reduces the carbon footprint.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ma18153641","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,4]],"date-time":"2025-08-04T15:30:06Z","timestamp":1754321406000},"page":"3641","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":15,"title":["Lithium Slag as a Supplementary Cementitious Material for Sustainable Concrete: A Review"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"18","author":[{"given":"Sajad","family":"Razzazan","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Mineral Recovery Research Centre (MRRC), School of Engineering, Edith Cowan University, Joondalup, WA 6027, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0331-4254","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Nuha","family":"Mashaan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Mineral Recovery Research Centre (MRRC), School of Engineering, Edith Cowan University, Joondalup, WA 6027, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5097-8523","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Themelina","family":"Paraskeva","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Mineral Recovery Research Centre (MRRC), School of Engineering, Edith Cowan University, Joondalup, WA 6027, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,2]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Luo, Q., Wen, Y.F., Huang, S.W., Peng, W.L., Li, J.Y., and Zhou, Y.X. (2017). Effects of Lithium Slag from Lepidolite on Portland Cement Concrete: Qi Luo Yufeng Wen, Shaowen Huang, Weiliang Peng, Jinyang Li & Yuxuan Zhou. Civil, Architecture and Environmental Engineering, CRC Press.","DOI":"10.1201\/9781315116259-104"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"35","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhazmat.2018.03.063","article-title":"Microstructure of Ultra High Performance Concrete Containing Lithium Slag","volume":"353","author":"He","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Hazard Mater."},{"key":"ref_3","first-page":"110","article-title":"Lithium-Ion Batteries","volume":"84","author":"Griffin","year":"2019","journal-title":"Electr. Contract."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102287","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jobe.2021.102287","article-title":"Hydration Properties and Kinetic Characteristics of Blended Cement Containing Lithium Slag Powder","volume":"39","author":"Zhai","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Build. Eng."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106743","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mineng.2020.106743","article-title":"Towards a Low-Carbon Society: A Review of Lithium Resource Availability, Challenges and Innovations in Mining, Extraction and Recycling, and Future Perspectives","volume":"163","author":"Tabelin","year":"2021","journal-title":"Miner. Eng."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109563","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jobe.2024.109563","article-title":"Recycling Lithium Slag into Eco-Friendly Ultra-High Performance Concrete: Hydration Process, Microstructure Development, and Environmental Benefits","volume":"91","author":"Yang","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Build. Eng."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105262","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cemconcomp.2023.105262","article-title":"Assessment of Lithium Slag as a Supplementary Cementitious Material: Pozzolanic Activity and Microstructure Development","volume":"143","author":"Rahman","year":"2023","journal-title":"Cem. Concr. Compos."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4019312","DOI":"10.1061\/(ASCE)MT.1943-5533.0002970","article-title":"Characteristics of Alkali-Activated Lithium Slag at Early Reaction Age","volume":"31","author":"Liu","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Mater. Civ. Eng."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"112384","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jobe.2025.112384","article-title":"Conventional and Potential Alternative Non-Conventional Raw Materials Available in Nordic Countries for Low-Carbon Concrete: A Review","volume":"104","author":"Adediran","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Build. Eng."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"131361","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclepro.2022.131361","article-title":"The Use of Contaminated Soil and Lithium Slag for the Production of Sustainable Lightweight Aggregate","volume":"348","author":"Gao","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Clean Prod."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zetola, V., Keith, B.F., Lam, E.J., Montofr\u00e9, \u00cd.L., Rojas, R.J., Mar\u00edn, J., and Becerra, M. (2024). From Mine Waste to Construction Materials: A Bibliometric Analysis of Mining Waste Recovery and Tailing Utilization in Construction. Sustainability, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/su162310314"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"El Machi, A., El Berdai, Y., Mabroum, S., Safhi, A.E.M., Taha, Y., Benzaazoua, M., and Hakkou, R. (2024). Recycling of Mine Wastes in the Concrete Industry: A Review. Buildings, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/buildings14061508"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zabielska-Adamska, K. (2025). Industrial By-Products and Waste Materials in Geotechnical Engineering Applications. Emerging Trends in Sustainable Geotechnics: Keynote Volume of EGRWSE 2024, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-981-96-2714-1_3"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Villagran-Zaccardi, Y., Carre\u00f1o, F., Granheim, L., Esp\u00edn de Gea, A., Smith Minke, U., Butera, S., L\u00f3pez-Mart\u00ednez, E., and Peys, A. (2024). Valorisation of Aggregate-Washing Sludges in Innovative Applications in Construction. Materials, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/ma17194892"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Saluja, S., Gaur, A., Somani, P., and Abbas, S. (2025). Use of Stabilized Waste Soil in the Construction of Sustainable Concrete. Recent Developments and Innovations in the Sustainable Production of Concrete, Elsevier.","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-443-23895-6.00015-7"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"141496","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclepro.2024.141496","article-title":"Macro\u2013Micro Investigation on Stabilization Sludge as Subgrade Filler by the Ternary Blending of Steel Slag and Fly Ash and Calcium Carbide Residue","volume":"447","author":"Zhu","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Clean Prod."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"142196","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2025.142196","article-title":"A Comprehensive Benefit Evaluation of Recycled Carbon Fiber Reinforced Cement Mortar Based on Combined Weighting","volume":"489","author":"Li","year":"2025","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"547","DOI":"10.1007\/s11803-025-2307-7","article-title":"In-Situ Investigation on Dynamic Response of Highway Transition Section with Foamed Concrete","volume":"24","author":"Chen","year":"2025","journal-title":"Earthq. Eng. Eng. Vib."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113295","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mtcomm.2025.113295","article-title":"Modulation of Initial CaO\/Al2O3 and SiO2\/Al2O3 Ratios on the Properties of Slag\/Fly Ash-Based Geopolymer Stabilized Clay: Synergistic Effects and Stabilization Mechanism","volume":"47","author":"Luo","year":"2025","journal-title":"Mater. Today Commun."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"133164","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2023.133164","article-title":"Utilizing Lithium Slag to Improve the Physical-Chemical Properties of Alkali-Activated Metakaolin-Slag Pastes: Cost and Energy Analysis","volume":"403","author":"Guo","year":"2023","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"134300","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclepro.2022.134300","article-title":"Corrosion Behavior of Concrete Fabricated with Lithium Slag as Corrosion Inhibitor under Simulated Acid Rain Corrosion Action","volume":"377","author":"Zhang","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Clean Prod."},{"key":"ref_22","first-page":"194","article-title":"The use of mining and metallurgy waste in manufacture of building materials","volume":"6","author":"Begentayev","year":"2020","journal-title":"Tech. Sci."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bueno-G\u00f3mez, T., L\u00f3pez-Bernier, Y., Caycedo-Garc\u00eda, M.S., Ardila-Rey, J.D., Rodr\u00edguez-Caicedo, J.P., and Joya-C\u00e1rdenas, D.R. (2025). Valorization of Gold Mining Tailings Sludge from Vetas, Colombia as Partial Cement Replacement in Concrete Mixes. Buildings, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/buildings15091419"},{"key":"ref_24","first-page":"3120","article-title":"Property Research of Green Concrete Mixed with Lithium Slag and Limestone Flour","volume":"765","author":"Wen","year":"2013","journal-title":"Adv. Mat. Res."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"52","DOI":"10.4028\/www.scientific.net\/KEM.599.52","article-title":"Influence of Concrete with Lithium-Slag and Steel Slag by Early Curing Conditions","volume":"599","author":"Wu","year":"2014","journal-title":"Key Eng. Mater."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"136648","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2024.136648","article-title":"The Formation, Characteristics, and Resource Utilization of Lithium Slag","volume":"432","author":"Gu","year":"2024","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105469","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cemconcomp.2024.105469","article-title":"Fresh, Mechanical, and Microstructural Properties of Lithium Slag Concretes","volume":"148","author":"Rahman","year":"2024","journal-title":"Cem. Concr. Compos."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"135073","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2024.135073","article-title":"Transport Properties of Concrete Containing Lithium Slag","volume":"416","author":"Amin","year":"2024","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chen, X.-B., Liang, J.-F., and Li, W. (2024). Compression Stress-Strain Curve of Lithium Slag Recycled Fine Aggregate Concrete. PLoS ONE, 19.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0302176"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"137621","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2024.137621","article-title":"Assessment of Lithium Slag as a Supplementary Siliceous Material in Autoclaved Aerated Concrete: Physical Properties and Hydration Characteristics","volume":"442","author":"Wang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"596","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2019.06.062","article-title":"Products and Properties of Steam Cured Cement Mortar Containing Lithium Slag under Partial Immersion in Sulfate Solution","volume":"220","author":"Li","year":"2019","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1818","DOI":"10.1007\/s10163-020-01069-4","article-title":"Recycling of Lithium Slag as a Green Admixture for White Reactive Powder Concrete","volume":"22","author":"Li","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Mater. Cycles Waste Manag."},{"key":"ref_33","first-page":"12151","article-title":"Influence of Lithium Slag from Lepidolite on the Durability of Concrete","volume":"Volume 61","author":"Luo","year":"2017","journal-title":"Proceedings of the IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"121567","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2020.121567","article-title":"Mechanical and Environmental Characteristics of Cemented Paste Backfill Containing Lithium Slag-Blended Binder","volume":"271","author":"He","year":"2021","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"134811","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2023.134811","article-title":"Early Age Hydration Behaviour of Foam Concrete Containing a Coal Mining Waste: Novel Experimental Procedures and Effects of Capillary Pressure","volume":"414","author":"Foghi","year":"2024","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_36","first-page":"e04846","article-title":"Sulfate Attack Performance of Concrete Mixtures with Use of Copper Slag as Supplementary Cementitious Material","volume":"22","author":"Silva","year":"2025","journal-title":"Case Stud. Constr. Mater."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"582","DOI":"10.13168\/cs.2024.0057","article-title":"Functional Characteristics of Sustainable Pervious Cement Concrete Pavement Modified by Silica Fume and Travertine Waste","volume":"68","author":"Li","year":"2024","journal-title":"Ceram.\u2013Silik\u00e1ty"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gou, H., Rupasinghe, M., Sofi, M., Sharma, R., Ranzi, G., Mendis, P., and Zhang, Z. (2023). A Review on Cementitious and Geopolymer Composites with Lithium Slag Incorporation. Materials, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/ma17010142"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"de Souza, E.A., de K\u00e1ssia Rodrigues e Silva, R., and Borges, P.H.R. (2024, January 11\u201313). Overburden Materials from the Iron Mining as Raw Materials for AAM: Preliminary Assessment of Mixes for 3D Concrete Printing. Proceedings of the FIB International Conference on Concrete Sustainability, Guimar\u00e3es, Portugal.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-031-80724-4_51"},{"key":"ref_40","first-page":"e04570","article-title":"Sustainable 3D Printed Concrete Incorporating Alternative Fine Aggregates: A Review","volume":"22","author":"Mim","year":"2025","journal-title":"Case Stud. Constr. Mater."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"91","DOI":"10.1617\/s11527-023-02177-x","article-title":"Fresh State and Hydration Properties of High-Volume Lithium Slag Cement Composites","volume":"56","author":"Rahman","year":"2023","journal-title":"Mater. Struct."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sousa, J.T.F.d., Anjos, M.A.S.d., Neto, J.A.d.S., Farias, E.C.d., Branco, F.G., and Maia Pederneiras, C. (2025). Self-Compacting Concrete with Artificial Lightweight Aggregates from Sugarcane Ash and Calcined Scheelite Mining Waste. Appl. Sci., 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/app15010452"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"136640","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2024.136640","article-title":"Mechanical Characterization of Cement Mortars and Concrete with Recycled Aggregates from Coal Mining Wastes Geomaterials (CMWGs)","volume":"432","author":"Cuenca","year":"2024","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"70","DOI":"10.4028\/www.scientific.net\/KEM.599.70","article-title":"Properties and Microstructure of HPC with Lithium-Slag and Fly Ash","volume":"599","author":"Wu","year":"2014","journal-title":"Key Eng. Mater."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"74","DOI":"10.1007\/s41062-024-01374-z","article-title":"A Review on 3D Printable Cementitious Material Containing Copper and Iron Ore Tailings: Material Characterization, Activation Methods, Engineering Properties, Durability, and Microstructure Behavior","volume":"9","author":"Vigneshwari","year":"2024","journal-title":"Innov. Infrastruct. Solut."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"142795","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclepro.2024.142795","article-title":"Reimagining Resources Policy: Synergizing Mining Waste Utilization for Sustainable Construction Practices","volume":"464","author":"Yu","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Clean Prod."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liang, J., Zou, W., Tian, Y., Wang, C., and Li, W. (2024). Effect of High Temperature on Mechanical Properties of Lithium Slag Concrete. Sci. Rep., 14.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-024-62837-y"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108586","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mineng.2024.108586","article-title":"Recent Advances on Beneficial Management of Lithium Refinery Residue in China","volume":"208","author":"Zhai","year":"2024","journal-title":"Miner. Eng."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"134588","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2023.134588","article-title":"Corrosive Effect of HCl and H2SO4 Exposure on the Strength and Microstructure of Lithium Slag Geopolymer Mortars","volume":"411","author":"Javed","year":"2024","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"129692","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2022.129692","article-title":"Mechanism and Assessment of the Pozzolanic Activity of Melting-Quenching Lithium Slag Modified with MgO","volume":"363","author":"He","year":"2023","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106610","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jobe.2023.106610","article-title":"Improving the Performance of Ultra-High Performance Concrete Containing Lithium Slag by Incorporating Limestone Powder","volume":"72","author":"Zhang","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Build. Eng."},{"key":"ref_52","first-page":"e02822","article-title":"Evaluating Lithium Slag for Geopolymer Concrete: A Review of Its Properties and Sustainable Construction Applications","volume":"20","author":"Khair","year":"2024","journal-title":"Case Stud. Constr. Mater."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11653","DOI":"10.1007\/s10973-023-12531-4","article-title":"Rheological Performance and Hydration Kinetics of Lithium Slag-Cement Binder in the Function of Sodium Sulfate","volume":"148","author":"He","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Therm. Anal. Calorim."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106644","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mtcomm.2023.106644","article-title":"Iron Ore Tailings, Phosphate Slags, and Lithium Slags as Ternary Supplementary Cementitious Materials for Concrete: Study on Compression Strength and Microstructure","volume":"36","author":"Zhang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Mater. Today Commun."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"130070","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2022.130070","article-title":"Lithium Slag-Based Geopolymer Synthesized with Hybrid Solid Activators","volume":"365","author":"Luo","year":"2023","journal-title":"Constr Build Mater"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107076","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jobe.2023.107076","article-title":"Insight to Workability, Compressive Strength and Microstructure of Lithium Slag-Steel Slag Based Cement under Standard Condition","volume":"75","author":"Zhou","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Build. Eng."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"119528","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclepro.2019.119528","article-title":"Preparation for Micro-Lithium Slag via Wet Grinding and Its Application as Accelerator in Portland Cement","volume":"250","author":"Tan","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Clean Prod."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8974625","DOI":"10.1155\/2019\/8974625","article-title":"The Mechanical Properties of Recycled Coarse Aggregate Concrete with Lithium Slag","volume":"2019","author":"Qin","year":"2019","journal-title":"Adv. Mater. Sci. Eng."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"624","DOI":"10.1007\/s12205-018-0449-0","article-title":"Flexural Properties of Lithium Slag Concrete Beams Subjected to Loading and Thermal-Cold Cycles","volume":"23","author":"Chen","year":"2018","journal-title":"KSCE J. Civ. Eng."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"536","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclepro.2018.09.027","article-title":"Utilization of Lithium Slag by Wet-Grinding Process to Improve the Early Strength of Sulphoaluminate Cement Paste","volume":"205","author":"Tan","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Clean Prod."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"296","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2017.04.166","article-title":"Mechanical Properties, Drying Shrinkage, and Creep of Concrete Containing Lithium Slag","volume":"147","author":"He","year":"2017","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_62","first-page":"171","article-title":"Durability Properties of Recycled Concrete with Lithium Slag under Freeze-Thaw Cycles","volume":"55","author":"Qin","year":"2021","journal-title":"Mater. Technol."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"782","DOI":"10.4028\/www.scientific.net\/AMM.94-96.782","article-title":"De Ring Method Test on the Early-Age Anti-Cracking Capability of High-Performance Lithium Slag Concrete","volume":"94","author":"Shi","year":"2011","journal-title":"Appl. Mech. Mater."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"430","DOI":"10.1166\/mex.2020.1644","article-title":"Hydration and Microstructure of Concrete Containing High Volume Lithium Slag","volume":"10","author":"He","year":"2020","journal-title":"Mater. Express"},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"127053","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2022.127053","article-title":"A Comprehensive Review of Properties of Concrete Containing Lithium Refinery Residue as Partial Replacement of Cement","volume":"328","author":"Rahman","year":"2022","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106944","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compgeo.2024.106944","article-title":"Generalized Solutions for Advection\u2013Dispersion Transport Equations Subject to Time- and Space-Dependent Internal and Boundary Sources","volume":"178","author":"Ding","year":"2025","journal-title":"Comput. Geotech."}],"container-title":["Materials"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1996-1944\/18\/15\/3641\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,9]],"date-time":"2025-10-09T18:21:54Z","timestamp":1760034114000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1996-1944\/18\/15\/3641"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,2]]},"references-count":66,"journal-issue":{"issue":"15","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,8]]}},"alternative-id":["ma18153641"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ma18153641","relation":{},"ISSN":["1996-1944"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1996-1944","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,2]]}}}