{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,15]],"date-time":"2026-10-15T21:33:24Z","timestamp":1792100004686,"version":"4.4.0"},"reference-count":85,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"16","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,11]],"date-time":"2025-08-11T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1754870400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Materials"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Styles are invasive medical devices that are visible on images and are used in several medical specialties, including cardiology, neurology, orthopaedics, anaesthesia, oto-rhino-laryngology (ENT), and dentistry. With their thin and flexible design, they allow for the optimal positioning and precise guidance of medical devices such as nerve stimulation, defibrillation, electrode positioning, and catheter insertion. Generally, they are made of stainless steel, offering a combination of rigidity and flexibility. The aim of this study is to evaluate the sensitivity of austenitic stainless steel 304L used for the manufacture of J-stylets in uniform, pitting, crevice, and intergranular corrosion. We follow the manufacturing process step by step in order to analyse the risks of corrosion sensitisation and the cumulative effects of various forms of degradation, which could lead to a significant release of metal cations. Another objective of this study is to determine the optimal heat treatment temperature to minimise sensitivity to the intergranular corrosion of 304L steel. Uniform corrosion: Two samples were taken at each stage of the manufacturing process (eight steps in total), in the form of rods. After one hour of immersion, potentiodynamic polarisation curves were plotted up to \u00b1400 mV vs. SCE. A coulometric analysis was also performed by integrating the anode zone between E (i = 0) and +400 mV vs. SCE. The values obtained by integration are expressed as mC\/cm2. The test medium used was a simulated artificial plasma solution (9 g\/L NaCl solution). Intergranular corrosion: (a) Chemical test: Thirty rod-shaped samples were tested, representing the eight manufacturing steps, as well as heat treatments at 500 \u00b0C, 620 \u00b0C, and 750 \u00b0C, in accordance with ASTM A262 (F method). (b) Electrochemical Potentiokinetic Reactivation (EPR) according to ASTM G108\u201394 (2015). Two samples were tested for each condition: without heat treatment and after treatments at 500 \u00b0C, 620 \u00b0C, and 750 \u00b0C. Release of cations: The release of metal ions was evaluated in the following two media: artificial sweat, according to EN 1811:2011+A1:2015, and bone plasma, according to the Fitton-Jackson and Burks-Peck method. Six samples that had been heat-treated at 500 \u00b0C for one hour were analysed. Results, discussions: (a) Analysis of the polarisation curves revealed significant disturbances in the heat treatment steps, as well as the \u03bcC\/cm2 quantities, which were between 150,000 and 400,000 compared to only 40\u2013180 for the other manufacturing steps; (b) Electrochemical Potentiokinetic reactivation (EPR) tests indicated that the temperature of 500 \u00b0C was a good choice to limit 304L steel sensitisation in intergranular corrosion; and (c) the quantities of cations released in EN 1811 sweat were of the order of a few \u03bcg\/cm2 week, as for Fe: 2.31, Cr: 0.05, and Ni: 0.12.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ma18163769","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,11]],"date-time":"2025-08-11T17:22:07Z","timestamp":1754932927000},"page":"3769","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":5,"title":["Corrosion and Ion Release in 304L Stainless Steel Biomedical Stylets"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"18","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9428-1453","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Lucien","family":"Reclaru","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Scientific Independent Consultant Biomaterials and Medical Devices, 103 Paul-Vouga, 2074 Marin-Epargnier, Switzerland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8489-5937","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Alexandru Florian","family":"Grecu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Orthopedics and Traumatology, University of Medicine and Pharmacy of Craiova, 540053 Craiova, Romania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Daniela Florentina","family":"Grecu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Filantropia Municipal Clinical Hospital of Craiova, 540053 Craiova, Romania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Cristian Virgil","family":"Lungulescu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Oncology of Craiova, University of Medicine and Pharmacy of Craiova, 540053 Craiova, Romania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Dan Cristian","family":"Grecu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Orthopedics and Traumatology, University of Medicine and Pharmacy of Craiova, 540053 Craiova, Romania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,11]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1871","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1540-8159.1990.tb06906.x","article-title":"Intravascular lead extraction using locking stylets and sheaths","volume":"13","author":"Byrd","year":"1990","journal-title":"PACE"},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"Singer, I. (1997). Intravascular lead extractions: Details and keys to success. Interventional Electrophysiology, Williams and Wilkins Medical Publishers."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1864","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1540-8159.1990.tb06905.x","article-title":"Intravascular lead extraction using locking stylets, sheaths, and other techniques","volume":"13","author":"Fearnot","year":"1990","journal-title":"PACE"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1540-8159.1996.tb04786.x","article-title":"Three-year experience with a stylet for lead extraction: A multicenter study","volume":"19","author":"Alt","year":"1996","journal-title":"PACE"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"135","DOI":"10.1007\/s10840-008-9261-y","article-title":"Over the wire lead extraction and focused force venoplasty to regain venous access in a totally occluded subclavian vein","volume":"23","author":"Worley","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Interv. Card. Electrophysiol."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"472","DOI":"10.1016\/j.hrthm.2011.12.019","article-title":"Riata implantable cardioverter-defibrillator lead failure: Analysis of explanted leads with a unique insulation defect","volume":"9","author":"Hauser","year":"2012","journal-title":"Heart Rhythm."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"565","DOI":"10.1007\/s11936-012-0200-y","article-title":"Update on indications, techniques, and complications of cardiac implantable device lead extraction","volume":"14","author":"Love","year":"2012","journal-title":"Curr. Treat. Options Cardiovasc. Med."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1356","DOI":"10.1093\/europace\/euu004","article-title":"Safety and efficacy of internal transjugular approach for transvenous extraction of implantable cardioverter defibrillator leads","volume":"16","author":"Bongiorni","year":"2014","journal-title":"Europace"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"580","DOI":"10.1016\/j.hrthm.2014.12.013","article-title":"Transvenous extraction profile of Riata leads: Procedural outcomes and technical complexity of mechanical removal","volume":"12","author":"Bongiorni","year":"2015","journal-title":"Heart Rhythm."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"678","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ihj.2015.10.299","article-title":"A simple method for Bachmann\u2019s bundle pacing with indigenous modification of J-stylet","volume":"68","author":"Das","year":"2016","journal-title":"Indian Heart J."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"499","DOI":"10.1093\/europace\/euu272","article-title":"Compression coil provides increased lead control in extraction procedures","volume":"17","author":"Starck","year":"2015","journal-title":"Europace"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"218","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-023-43727-9","article-title":"Flexible, scalable, high channel count stereo-electrode for recording in the human brain","volume":"15","author":"Lee","year":"2024","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"380","DOI":"10.1227\/01.NEU.0000073423.09308.40","article-title":"Use of a screw-syringe injector for cement delivery during kyphoplasty: Technical report","volume":"53","author":"Amar","year":"2003","journal-title":"Neurosurgery"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"313","DOI":"10.1111\/ner.12224","article-title":"Novel tunneling system for implantation of percutaneous nerve field stimulator electrodes: A technical note","volume":"18","author":"Shaw","year":"2015","journal-title":"Neuromodulation"},{"key":"ref_15","first-page":"81","article-title":"A Modified Technique for Interventional MRI-Guided Deep Brain Stimulation Using the ClearPoint System","volume":"25","author":"Harland","year":"2023","journal-title":"Oper. Neurosurg."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"026009","DOI":"10.1088\/1741-2560\/9\/2\/026009","article-title":"Benchmarking the ERG valve tip and MRI Interventions Smart Flow neurocatheter convection-enhanced delivery system\u2019s performance in a gel model of the brain: Employing infusion protocols proposed for gene therapy for Parkinson\u2019s disease","volume":"9","author":"Sillay","year":"2012","journal-title":"Neural Eng."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1103","DOI":"10.12688\/f1000research.155381.2","article-title":"Coiling of echogenic perineural catheters with integral stylet: A proof-of-concept randomized control trial in a sciatic nerve block simulator and a pilot study in orthopaedic-trauma patients","volume":"13","author":"Saranteas","year":"2024","journal-title":"F1000Research"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"37","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclinane.2015.12.024","article-title":"Correlation between extraction force during tracheal intubation stylet removal and postoperative sore throat","volume":"33","author":"Kusunoki","year":"2016","journal-title":"Clin. Anesth."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"384","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1754-9485.2012.02378.x","article-title":"Radiofrequency ablation of osteoid osteoma using tissue impedance as a parameter of osteonecrosis","volume":"56","author":"Ata","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Med. Imaging Radiat. Oncol."},{"key":"ref_20","first-page":"80","article-title":"Initial experiences with a novel nerve stimulator for use in axillary plexus anesthesia","volume":"12","author":"Biscoping","year":"1989","journal-title":"Reg. Anaesthesie"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e589","DOI":"10.1016\/j.asmr.2023.02.011","article-title":"Hip Joint Venting Decreases the Traction Force Required to Access the Central Compartment During Hip Arthroscopy","volume":"5","author":"Mortensen","year":"2023","journal-title":"Arthrosc. Sports Med. Rehabil."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"617","DOI":"10.1007\/s12630-011-9506-6","article-title":"Insertion of the ProSeal\u2122 laryngeal mask airway is more successful with the Flexi-Slip\u2122 stylet than with the introducer","volume":"58","author":"Chen","year":"2011","journal-title":"Can. J. Anaesth."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"79","DOI":"10.1186\/s13049-025-01357-8","article-title":"Confined space airway management: A narrative review","volume":"33","author":"Rudolph","year":"2025","journal-title":"Scand. J. Trauma. Resusc. Emerg. Med."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"737","DOI":"10.1111\/aas.12079","article-title":"Laryngeal morbidity after tracheal intubation: The Endoflex(\u00ae) tube compared to conventional endotracheal intubation with stylet","volume":"57","author":"Rasmussen","year":"2013","journal-title":"Acta Anaesthesiol. Scand."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1154","DOI":"10.1111\/aas.12543","article-title":"Tracheal intubation in patients with anticipated difficult airway using Boedeker intubation forceps and McGrath videolaryngoscope","volume":"59","author":"Barnung","year":"2015","journal-title":"Acta Anaesthesiol. Scand."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"91","DOI":"10.1007\/BF03020426","article-title":"Effective nasotracheal intubation using a modified transillumination technique","volume":"49","author":"Favaro","year":"2002","journal-title":"Can. J. Anaesth."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1057","DOI":"10.1007\/s12630-014-0205-y","article-title":"Mechanism of stylet-facilitated nasotracheal intubation","volume":"61","author":"Mahajan","year":"2014","journal-title":"Can. J. Anaesth."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ruetzler, K., Smereka, J., Abelairas-Gomez, C., Frass, M., Dabrowski, M., Bialka, S., Misiolek, H., Plusa, T., Robak, O., and Aniolek, O. (2020). Comparison of the new flexible tip bougie catheter and standard bougie stylet for tracheal intubation by anesthesiologists in different difficult airway scenarios: A randomized crossover trial. BMC Anesthesiol., 20.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12871-020-01009-7"},{"key":"ref_29","first-page":"152","article-title":"Randomized, Active-Controlled, Parallel-Group Clinical Study Assessing the Efficacy and Safety of FKScope\u00ae for Nasotracheal Intubation in Patients Scheduled for Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery Under General Anesthesia","volume":"59","author":"Huang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Asian J. Anesthesiol."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19","DOI":"10.1097\/00001665-200101000-00004","article-title":"Development of a device for the delivery of agents to bone during distraction osteogenesis","volume":"12","author":"Grayson","year":"2001","journal-title":"Craniofac Surg."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"212","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ajem.2022.02.008","article-title":"Retromolar intubation with video intubating stylet in difficult airway: A randomized crossover manikin study","volume":"54","author":"Chen","year":"2022","journal-title":"Am. J. Emerg. Med."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"281","DOI":"10.1159\/000512466","article-title":"Minimizing Intracochlear Pressure: Influence of the Insertion Sheath","volume":"26","author":"Ucta","year":"2021","journal-title":"Audiol. Neurootol."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"369","DOI":"10.18295\/2075-0528.1296","article-title":"Intra-Operative Neural Response Telemetry and Acoustic Reflex Assessment using an Advance-In-Stylet Technique and Modiolus-Hugging: A prospective cohort study","volume":"11","author":"Hagr","year":"2011","journal-title":"Sultan Qaboos Univ. Med. J."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1111","DOI":"10.1111\/anae.15390","article-title":"Intrathecal catheter use after accidental dural puncture in obstetric patients: Literature review and clinical management recommendations","volume":"76","author":"Jadon","year":"2021","journal-title":"Anaesthesia"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"204","DOI":"10.1097\/MAO.0b013e3181ca8457","article-title":"Otol Packing of the cochleostomy site affects auditory nerve response thresholds in precurved off-stylet cochlear implants","volume":"31","author":"Gordin","year":"2010","journal-title":"Otol. Neurotol."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"854","DOI":"10.1002\/nau.24253","article-title":"The impact of catheter-based bladder drainage method on urinary tract infection risk in spinal cord injury and neurogenic bladder: A systematic review","volume":"39","author":"Kinnear","year":"2020","journal-title":"Neurourol. Urodyn."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e32902","DOI":"10.1097\/MD.0000000000032902","article-title":"Pain management with epidural catheter and epidural analgesia after spinal dorsal instrumentation of lumbar spine","volume":"102","author":"Hamed","year":"2023","journal-title":"Med. Baltim."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1020","DOI":"10.1111\/iej.13783","article-title":"Present status and future directions: Surgical endodontics","volume":"55","author":"Setzer","year":"2022","journal-title":"Int. Endod. J."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dibart, S. (2020). Practical Advanced Periodontal Surgery, Blackwell Munksgaard, Editorial Offices. ISBN 9781119196310, ISBN 9781119196358.","DOI":"10.1002\/9781119196358"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chan, H.L.A., and Velasquez-Plata, D. (2022). Microsurgery, Book Periodontal and Implant Dentistry. Concepts and Applications, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-96874-8"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"601","DOI":"10.1016\/j.joen.2005.12.010","article-title":"Modern endodontic surgery concepts and practice: A review","volume":"32","author":"Kim","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Endod."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"81","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cden.2016.08.007","article-title":"Modern Endodontic Microsurgery Concepts: A Clinical Update","volume":"61","author":"Floratos","year":"2017","journal-title":"Dent. Clin. North. Am."},{"key":"ref_43","unstructured":"Marwah, N., Vishwanathaiah, S., and Ravi, G.R. (2024). Chapr-26 Pit and Fissure Sealants. Textbook of Pediatric Dentistry, Jaypee Brothers Medical Publishers (P) Ltd."},{"key":"ref_44","unstructured":"Kher, M.S., and Rao, A. (2019). Contemporary Treatment Techniques in Pediatric Dentistry, Springer Nature Switzerland AG. ISBN 978-3-030-11859-4, ISBN 978-3-030-11860-0."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4071","DOI":"10.62347\/LTAT2593","article-title":"A dual analysis of bougie and stylet development trend and impact of Chinese regulations on medical devices innovation, Review Article","volume":"16","author":"Zhang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Am. J. Transl. Res."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ha, H.-Y., Lee, T.-H., Bae, J.-H., and Chun, D.W. (2018). Molybdenum Effects on Pitting Corrosion Resistance of FeCrMnMoNC Austenitic Stainless Steels. Metals, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/met8080653"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Revie, R., and Uhlig, H.H. (2008). Corrosion and Corrosion Control: An Introduction to Corrosion Science and Engineering, John Wiley & Sons. [4th ed.].","DOI":"10.1002\/9780470277270"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tiamiyu, A.A., Eduok, U., Szpunar, J.A., and Odeshi, A.G. (2019). Corrosion behavior of metastable AISI 321 austenitic stainless steel: Investigating the effect of grain size and prior plastic deformation on its degradation pattern in saline media. Sci. Rep., 9.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-019-48594-3"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.corsci.2014.11.041","article-title":"The influence of nanocrystalline structure and processing route on corrosion of stainless steel: A review","volume":"92","author":"Gupta","year":"2015","journal-title":"Corros. Sci."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1201","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scriptamat.2010.08.035","article-title":"Revealing the relationship between grain size and corrosion rate of metals","volume":"63","author":"Ralston","year":"2010","journal-title":"Scr. Mater."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Eliaz, N. (2019). Corrosion of Metallic Biomaterials: A Review. Materials, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/ma12030407"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"433","DOI":"10.1016\/j.actbio.2006.03.004","article-title":"Comparative corrosion study of \u201dNi-free\u201d austenitic stainless steels in view of medical applications","volume":"2","author":"Reclaru","year":"2006","journal-title":"Acta Biomater."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chen, J.K., and Thyssen, J.P. (2018). European Standards Developed in Support of the European Union Nickel Directive. Metal Allergy, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-58503-1"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"73","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1600-0536.1992.tb00887.x","article-title":"Nickel in jewelry and associated products","volume":"26","author":"Liden","year":"1992","journal-title":"Contact Dermat."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"409","DOI":"10.1067\/mai.2000.104937","article-title":"The diagnostic evaluation, treatment, and prevention of allergic contact dermatitis in the new millennium","volume":"105","author":"Belsito","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Allergy Clin. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1192","DOI":"10.1034\/j.1398-9995.2001.00086.x","article-title":"Epidemiology of contact allergy in adults","volume":"56","author":"Schafer","year":"2001","journal-title":"Allergy"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chen, J.K., and Thyssen, J.P. (2018). Metal Exposure Regulations and Their Effect on Allergy Prevention. Metal Allergy, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-58503-1"},{"key":"#cr-split#-ref_58.1","unstructured":"(2012). Commission Communication in the framework of the implementation of Regulation"},{"key":"#cr-split#-ref_58.2","unstructured":"(EC) No 1907\/2006 of the European Parliament and of the Council concerning the Registration, Evaluation, Authorisation and Restriction of Chemicals (REACH). Off. J. Euro Union., C142, 8."},{"key":"ref_59","unstructured":"(1994). European Parliament and Council directive 94\/27\/EC of 30 June 1994: Amending for the 12th time Directive 76\/769\/EEC on the approximation of the laws, regulations and administrative provisions of the Member States relating to restrictions on the marketing and use of certain dangerous substances and preparations. Off. J. Eur. Commun., L188, 1\u20132."},{"key":"ref_60","unstructured":"Eliaz, N. (2012). Degradation of Implant Materials, Springer. ISBN 978-1-4614-3941-7, ISBN 978-1-4614-3942-4."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"231","DOI":"10.1515\/CORRREV.2003.21.2-3.231","article-title":"Failures of stainless steel orthopaedic devices\u2014Causes and remedies","volume":"21","author":"Sridhar","year":"2003","journal-title":"Corros. Rev."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1515\/corrrev-2014-0007","article-title":"Corrosion behavior of metallic materials in biomedical applications. Ti and its alloys","volume":"32","author":"Pound","year":"2014","journal-title":"Corros. Rev."},{"key":"ref_63","unstructured":"(2025, April 30). Technical Sheet Steel 304L. Available online: https:\/\/pxgroup.com\/sites\/default\/files\/304-L-1.4306.pdf."},{"key":"ref_64","unstructured":"(2019). Key to Steel-Stahlschl\u00fcssel, Verlag Stahlschl\u00fcssel Wegst GmbH. [25th ed.]. Available online: http:\/\/www.online.stahlschluessel.de\/BrowseProducts.aspx."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Baboian, R. (2004). Intergranular. Corrosion Tests and Standards: Application and Interpretation, ASTM International. [2nd ed.].","DOI":"10.1520\/MNL20_2ND-EB"},{"key":"ref_66","first-page":"108","article-title":"Localized Corrosion","volume":"518","author":"Henthorne","year":"1972","journal-title":"ASTM Tech. Publ."},{"key":"ref_67","unstructured":"Desestret, A., Froment, M., and Guiraldenq, P. (1972). Intergranular corrosion of austenitic stainless steels in the sensitized or solution-annealed condition. Extended Abstracts, Meeting of I.S.E.. [23rd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_68","unstructured":"(2015). Standard Practices for Detecting Susceptibility to Intergranular Attack in Austenitic Stainless Steels (Standard No. ASTM A262-15)."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3867","DOI":"10.1016\/S0013-4686(01)00674-0","article-title":"On the development of the electrochemical potentiokinetic method","volume":"46","author":"Cihal","year":"2001","journal-title":"Electrochim. Acta"},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"269","DOI":"10.1016\/j.prostr.2017.04.032","article-title":"Analysis of the intergranular corrosion susceptibility in stainless steel by means of potentiostatic reactivation tests","volume":"3","author":"Iacoviello","year":"2017","journal-title":"Procedia Struct. Integr."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Clarke, W.L., Romero, V.M., and Danko, J.C. (1977). Detection of Sensitization in Stainless Steel Using Electrochemical Techniques. Corrosion 77, International Corrosion Forum, National Association of Corrosion Engineers.","DOI":"10.5006\/C1977-77180"},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"344","DOI":"10.5006\/0010-9312-31.10.344","article-title":"Testing the susceptibility of stainless steels to intergranular corrosion by a reactivation method","volume":"31","author":"Novak","year":"1975","journal-title":"Corrosion"},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3565","DOI":"10.1016\/j.corsci.2006.01.003","article-title":"Determination of susceptibility to intergranular corrosion and electrochemical reactivation behaviour of AISI 316L type stainless steel","volume":"48","author":"Aydinol","year":"2006","journal-title":"Corr. Sci."},{"key":"ref_74","first-page":"47","article-title":"Trends in the Electrochemical Polarization Potentiodynamic Reactivation Method\u2014EPR","volume":"21","author":"Lasek","year":"2007","journal-title":"Chem. Biochem. Eng. Q."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"67","DOI":"10.1179\/000705991798269332","article-title":"Influence of Prior Deformation on the Sensitisation of AISI Type 304 Stainless Steel and Applicability of EPR Technique","volume":"26","author":"Parvathavarthini","year":"1991","journal-title":"Br. Corr. J."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"584","DOI":"10.5006\/1.3581921","article-title":"The Double Loop Reactivation Method for Detecting Sensitization in AISI 304 Stainless Steels","volume":"40","author":"Majidi","year":"1984","journal-title":"Corrosion"},{"key":"ref_77","unstructured":"(2015). Standard Test Method for Electrochemical Reactivation (EPR) for Detecting Sensitization of AISI Type 304 and 304L Stainless Steels (Standard No. ASTM G108-94(2015))."},{"key":"ref_78","unstructured":"(2013). Standard Test Methods for Determining Average Grain Size (Standard No. ASTM E112-13)."},{"key":"ref_79","unstructured":"(2011). Reference Test Method for Release of Nickel from All Post Assemblies which are Inserted into Pierced Parts of the Human Body and Articles Intended to Come Into Direct or Prolonged Contact with the Skin (Standard No. DIN EN 1811-223-4)."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"542","DOI":"10.1126\/science.564080","article-title":"Bone cells: A serum free medium supports proliferation in primary culture","volume":"199","author":"Burks","year":"1978","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"62","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2818.2006.01664.x","article-title":"Structural analysis and intergranular corrosion tests of AISI 316L steel","volume":"224","author":"Svoboda","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Microsc."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liu, T., Xia, S., Bai, Q., Zhou, B., Lu, Y., and Shoji, T. (2019). Evaluation of Grain Boundary Network and Improvement of Intergranular Cracking Resistance in 316L Stainless Steel after Grain Boundary Engineering. Materials, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/ma12020242"},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fujii, T., Furumoto, T., Tohgo, K., and Shimamura, Y. (2020). Crystallographic Evaluation of Susceptibility to Intergranular Corrosion in Austenitic Stainless Steel with Various Degrees of Sensitization. Materials, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/ma13030613"},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liu, G., Liu, Y., Cheng, Y., Li, J., and Jiang, Y. (2019). The Intergranular Corrosion Susceptibility of Metastable Austenitic Cr\u2013Mn\u2013Ni\u2013N\u2013Cu High-Strength Stainless Steel under Various Heat Treatments. Materials, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/ma12091385"}],"container-title":["Materials"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1996-1944\/18\/16\/3769\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,9]],"date-time":"2025-10-09T18:25:06Z","timestamp":1760034306000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1996-1944\/18\/16\/3769"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,11]]},"references-count":85,"journal-issue":{"issue":"16","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,8]]}},"alternative-id":["ma18163769"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ma18163769","relation":{},"ISSN":["1996-1944"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1996-1944","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,11]]}}}