{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,26]],"date-time":"2026-10-26T18:13:59Z","timestamp":1793038439426,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":51,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"18","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,21]],"date-time":"2025-09-21T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1758412800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"the Higher Education and Science Committee of the Ministry of Science, Education, Culture, and Sports of the Republic of Armenia","award":["24-2PTS-2I016"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["24-2PTS-2I016"]}]},{"name":"the Higher Education and Science Committee of the Ministry of Science, Education, Culture, and Sports of the Republic of Armenia","award":["CAS-ANSO-FS-2024-35"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["CAS-ANSO-FS-2024-35"]}]},{"name":"Alliance of National and International Science Organizations for the Belt and Road Regions (ANSO) of the Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS)","award":["24-2PTS-2I016"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["24-2PTS-2I016"]}]},{"name":"Alliance of National and International Science Organizations for the Belt and Road Regions (ANSO) of the Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS)","award":["CAS-ANSO-FS-2024-35"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["CAS-ANSO-FS-2024-35"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Materials"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Chloride ions can enhance the bioleaching of copper minerals, yet most biomining microorganisms are highly sensitive to chloride and cannot survive or colonize mineral surfaces in saline environments. Chloride tolerance varies among acidophilic iron-oxidizing bacteria, but the concentrations at which they remain active are generally too low to permit the industrial use of seawater. Therefore, identifying highly chloride-tolerant leaching microorganisms and studying their bioleaching potential in chloride-containing systems is of utmost importance. This study investigated chloride tolerance and adaptability of bacteria from different genera, with a focus on Sulfobacillus thermosulfidooxidans subsp. asporogenes 41, a moderately thermophilic strain that can oxidize both Fe (II) and reduced inorganic sulfur compounds (RISCs). This dual activity makes it advantageous for bioleaching by facilitating sulfur removal, generating acidity, and preventing mineral passivation. Comparative experiments on the bioleaching of pyrite and chalcopyrite demonstrated that adaptation to 0.3 M NaCl enhanced the chloride tolerance of S. thermosulfidooxidans subsp. asporogenes 41. The adapted strain exhibited significantly improved copper extraction under saline conditions compared with the native culture. Maximum copper recovery was achieved at 0.4 M NaCl, highlighting the potential of chloride-adapted moderate thermophiles for biomining applications in saline environments. In contrast the minimal inhibitory concentration for Acidithiobacillud ferrooxidans Dr was 0.005 M (causing 41.2% inhibition), while Leptospirillum ferriphilum CC was unaffected by lower concentrations (0.01\u20130.02 M) and only showed severe inhibition (86.5%) at 0.1 M NaCl, defining its minimal inhibitory concentration (MIC) at 0.05 M.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ma18184407","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,22]],"date-time":"2025-09-22T11:18:16Z","timestamp":1758539896000},"page":"4407","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":3,"title":["Bacterial Tolerance and Bioleaching in the Presence of Chloride"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"18","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5597-1950","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Narine","family":"Vardanyan","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"SPC \u201cArmbiotechnology\u201d NAS of Armenia, 14 Gyurjyan Str., Yerevan 0056, Armenia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Anna","family":"Khachatryan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"SPC \u201cArmbiotechnology\u201d NAS of Armenia, 14 Gyurjyan Str., Yerevan 0056, Armenia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Zaruhi","family":"Melkonyan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"SPC \u201cArmbiotechnology\u201d NAS of Armenia, 14 Gyurjyan Str., Yerevan 0056, Armenia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Nelli","family":"Abrahamyan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"SPC \u201cArmbiotechnology\u201d NAS of Armenia, 14 Gyurjyan Str., Yerevan 0056, Armenia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0002-6527-5112","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sona","family":"Barseghyan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"SPC \u201cArmbiotechnology\u201d NAS of Armenia, 14 Gyurjyan Str., Yerevan 0056, Armenia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0647-2247","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ruiyong","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Advanced Marine Materials, Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao 266071, China"},{"name":"Key Laboratory of Marine Environmental Corrosion and Biofouling, Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao 266071, China"},{"name":"Guangxi Key Laboratory of Marine Environmental Science, Institute of Marine Corrosion Protection, Guangxi Academy of Sciences, Nanning 530007, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8715-5870","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Arevik","family":"Vardanyan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"SPC \u201cArmbiotechnology\u201d NAS of Armenia, 14 Gyurjyan Str., Yerevan 0056, Armenia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,21]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"249","DOI":"10.1007\/BF03027450","article-title":"Bioleaching: A microbial process of metal recovery. A review","volume":"11","author":"Mishra","year":"2005","journal-title":"Met. Mater. Int."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"Rathinam, N.K., and Sani, R.K. (2020). Chapter 20\u2014Recent trends and challenges in bioleaching technologies. Biovalorisation of Wastes to Renewable Chemicals and Biofuels, Elsevier."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tao, J., Liu, X., Luo, X., Teng, T., Jiang, C., Drewniak, L., Yang, Z., and Yin, H. (2021). An integrated insight into bioleaching performance of chalcopyrite mediated by microbial factors: Functional types and biodiversity. Bioresour. Technol., 319.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biortech.2020.124219"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105122","DOI":"10.1016\/j.hydromet.2019.105122","article-title":"Bioleaching approach for extraction of metal values from secondary solid wastes: A critical review","volume":"189","author":"Srichandan","year":"2019","journal-title":"Hydrometallurgy"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7","DOI":"10.1016\/j.hydromet.2018.06.018","article-title":"Recent progress in biohydrometallurgy and microbial characterization","volume":"180","author":"Kaksonen","year":"2018","journal-title":"Hydrometallurgy"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"37","DOI":"10.1016\/S0304-386X(98)00070-X","article-title":"Silver catalysed bioleaching of a chalcopyrite concentrate with mixed cultures of moderately thermophilic microorganisms","volume":"51","author":"Gomez","year":"1999","journal-title":"Hydrometallurgy"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"26","DOI":"10.1016\/j.hydromet.2018.07.008","article-title":"Study on catalytic mechanism of silver ions in bioleaching of chalcopyrite by SR-XRD and XANES","volume":"180","author":"Xia","year":"2018","journal-title":"Hydrometallurgy"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1294","DOI":"10.1016\/S1003-6326(19)65036-3","article-title":"Comparative study on chalcopyrite bioleaching with assistance of different carbon materials by mixed moderate thermophiles","volume":"29","author":"Zhu","year":"2019","journal-title":"Trans. Nonferrous Met. Soc. China"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107281","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mineng.2021.107281","article-title":"Bioleaching of copper from chalcopyrite ore at higher NaCl concentrations","volume":"175","author":"Vakylabad","year":"2022","journal-title":"Miner. Eng."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"43","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mineng.2019.03.028","article-title":"Effect of surfactant on the growth and activity of microorganisms in a heap bioleaching system","volume":"138","author":"Ghadiri","year":"2019","journal-title":"Miner. Eng."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"80","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mineng.2016.07.019","article-title":"Bioleaching of chalcopyrite by Acidianus manzaensis under different constant pH","volume":"98","author":"Liu","year":"2016","journal-title":"Miner. Eng."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107145","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mineng.2021.107145","article-title":"The use of pyrite to control redox potential to enhance chalcopyrite bioleaching in the presence of Leptospirillum ferriphilum","volume":"172","author":"Hong","year":"2021","journal-title":"Miner. Eng."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1802","DOI":"10.1007\/s11771-025-5957-8","article-title":"Chalcopyrite bioleaching by an enriched microbial community in acidic artificial seawater","volume":"32","author":"Gu","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Cent. South Univ."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"75","DOI":"10.1016\/j.hydromet.2005.07.001","article-title":"Sodium sulphate and sodium chloride effects on batch culture of iron oxidising bacteria","volume":"80","author":"Shiers","year":"2005","journal-title":"Hydrometallurgy"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"319","DOI":"10.1007\/s00253-011-3731-3","article-title":"Bioleaching in brackish waters\u2014Effect of chloride ions on the acidophile population and proteomes of model species","volume":"93","author":"Zammit","year":"2012","journal-title":"Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"283","DOI":"10.4028\/www.scientific.net\/AMR.71-73.283","article-title":"The characterization of salt tolerance in biomining microorganisms and the search for novel salt tolerant strains","volume":"71\u201373","author":"Zammit","year":"2009","journal-title":"Adv. Mater. Res."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"126","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mineng.2014.09.011","article-title":"Salt-tolerant microorganisms potentially useful for bioleaching operations where fresh water is scarce","volume":"75","author":"Rea","year":"2015","journal-title":"Miner. Eng."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Khaleque, H.L., Gonz\u00e1lez, C., Shafique, R., Kaksonen, A.H., Holmes, A.H., and Watkin, E.L.J. (2019). Uncovering the Mechanisms of Halotolerance in the Extremely Acidophilic Members of the Acidihalobacter Genus Through Comparative Genome Analysis. Front. Microbiol., 10.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2019.00155"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"385","DOI":"10.4028\/www.scientific.net\/SSP.262.385","article-title":"Comparative study of NaCl-tolerance mechanisms in acidophilic iron-oxidizing bacteria and archaea","volume":"262","year":"2017","journal-title":"Solid State Phenom."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"422","DOI":"10.1002\/bit.22709","article-title":"Effect chloride ferrous iron oxidation Leptospirillum ferriphilum dominated chemostat culture","volume":"106","author":"Gahan","year":"2010","journal-title":"Biotechnol. Bioeng."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"348","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biortech.2012.06.114","article-title":"Bioleaching of chalcopyrite by defined mixed moderately thermophilic consortium including a marine acidophilic halotolerant bacterium","volume":"121","author":"Wang","year":"2012","journal-title":"Bioresour. Technol."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5163","DOI":"10.1128\/AEM.65.11.5163-5168.1999","article-title":"Effect of various ions, pH, and osmotic pressure on oxidation of elemental sulfur by Thiobacillus thiooxidans","volume":"65","author":"Suzuki","year":"1999","journal-title":"Appl. Environ. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/S0065-2911(09)05501-5","article-title":"Cytoplasmic pH measurement and homeostasis in bacteria and archaea","volume":"55","author":"Slonczewski","year":"2009","journal-title":"Adv. Microb. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rivera-Araya, J., Pollender, A., Huynh, D., Schl\u00f6mann, M., Ch\u00e1vez, R., and Levic\u00e1n, G.J. (2019). Osmotic imbalance, cytoplasm acidification, and oxidative stress induction support the high toxicity of chloride in acidophilic bacteria. Front. Microbiol., 10.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2019.02455"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105334","DOI":"10.1016\/j.hydromet.2020.105334","article-title":"Mechanisms of NaCl-tolerance in acidophilic iron-oxidizing bacteria and archaea: Comparative genomic predictions and insights","volume":"194","author":"Huynh","year":"2020","journal-title":"Hydrometallurgy"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"479","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00454862","article-title":"Thiobacillus prosperus sp. nov., represents a new group of halotolerant metal-mobilizing bacteria isolated from a marine geothermal field","volume":"151","author":"Huber","year":"1989","journal-title":"Arch. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105775","DOI":"10.1016\/j.hydromet.2021.105775","article-title":"Chalcopyrite leaching in novel lixiviants","volume":"207","author":"Barton","year":"2022","journal-title":"Hydrometallurgy"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105995","DOI":"10.1016\/j.hydromet.2022.105995","article-title":"Chalcopyrite bioleaching in chloride media: A mini-review","volume":"216","author":"Martins","year":"2023","journal-title":"Hydrometallurgy"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"243","DOI":"10.1016\/S0301-7516(00)00056-9","article-title":"Bioleaching of a chalcopyrite concentrate using an extremely thermophilic culture","volume":"62","author":"Gericke","year":"2001","journal-title":"Int. J. Miner. Process"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.hydromet.2013.06.008","article-title":"Effect of Na\u2013chloride on the bioleaching of a chalcopyrite concentrate in shake flasks and stirred tank bioreactors","volume":"138","author":"Bevilaqua","year":"2013","journal-title":"Hydrometallurgy"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"26","DOI":"10.1016\/j.hydromet.2016.08.008","article-title":"Primary copper sulfides bioleaching vs. chloride leaching: Advantages and drawbacks","volume":"168","author":"Perez","year":"2017","journal-title":"Hydrometallurgy"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"84","DOI":"10.1186\/s13568-014-0084-1","article-title":"Sulfobacillus thermosulfidooxidans strain Cutipay enhances chalcopyrite bioleaching under moderate thermophilic conditions in the presence of chloride ion","volume":"4","author":"Maass","year":"2014","journal-title":"AMB Express"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"749","DOI":"10.1007\/s11771-023-5276-x","article-title":"Thermoacidophilic bioleaching of copper sulfide concentrate in the presence of chloride ions","volume":"30","author":"Bakhshoude","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Cent. South Univer."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2333","DOI":"10.1002\/jctb.6028","article-title":"Chalcopyrite bioleaching in the presence of high chloride concentrations","volume":"94","author":"Martins","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Chem. Technol. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"475","DOI":"10.1007\/s43153-023-00361-8","article-title":"Bioleaching of two different chalcopyrite ores in chloride media","volume":"41","author":"Martins","year":"2024","journal-title":"Braz. J. Chem. Eng."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105397","DOI":"10.1016\/j.hydromet.2020.105397","article-title":"The role of bioleaching microorganisms in saline water leaching of chalcopyrite concentrate","volume":"195","author":"Noguchi","year":"2020","journal-title":"Hydrometallurgy"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"70","DOI":"10.1016\/j.hydromet.2013.11.008","article-title":"The role of microorganisms in gold processing and recovery- a review","volume":"142","author":"Kaksonen","year":"2014","journal-title":"Hydrometallurgy"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"52","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mineng.2019.04.033","article-title":"Effect of sodium chloride on Leptospirillum ferriphilum DSM 14647T and Sulfobacillus thermosulfidooxidans DSM 9293T: Growth, iron oxidation activity and bioleaching of sulfidic metal ores","volume":"138","author":"Huynh","year":"2019","journal-title":"Miner. Eng."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Huynh, D., Norambuena, J., Boldt, C., Kaschabek, S.R., Levic\u00e1n, G., and Schl\u00f6mann, M. (2020). Effect of Sodium Chloride on Pyrite Bioleaching and Initial Attachment by Sulfobacillus thermosulfidooxidans. Front. Microbiol., 11.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2020.02102"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1273","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhazmat.2009.07.133","article-title":"A study on the toxic effects of chloride on the biooxidation efficiency of pyrite","volume":"172","author":"Gahan","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Hazard. Mater."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Toro, N., Moraga, C., Torres, D., Salda\u00f1a, M., P\u00e9rez, K., and G\u00e1lvez, E. (2021). Leaching Chalcocite in Chloride Media\u2014A Review. Minerals, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/min11111197"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"364","DOI":"10.4028\/www.scientific.net\/SSP.262.364","article-title":"Microorganisms oxidize iron (II) ions in the presence of high concentrations of sodium chloride\u2014Potentially useful for bioleaching","volume":"262","author":"Huynh","year":"2017","journal-title":"Solid State Phenom."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"87","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mineng.2018.02.025","article-title":"Chloride ion tolerance and pyrite bioleaching capabilities of pure and mixed halotolerant, acidophilic iron- and sulfur-oxidizing cultures","volume":"120","author":"Khaleque","year":"2018","journal-title":"Miner. Eng."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"593","DOI":"10.1007\/s00792-020-01178-w","article-title":"Salt-tolerant Acidihalobacter and Acidithiobacillus species from Vulcano (Italy) and Milos (Greece)","volume":"24","author":"Norris","year":"2020","journal-title":"Extremophiles"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mackintosh, M.E. (1978). Nitrogen Fixation by Thiobacillus ferrooxidans. J. Gen. Microbiol., 105.","DOI":"10.1099\/00221287-105-2-215"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1191","DOI":"10.1021\/ac60165a044","article-title":"EDTA Titration of total Iron in Iron(II) and Iron(III) mixtures. Application to Iron driers","volume":"32","author":"Lucchesi","year":"1960","journal-title":"Anal Chem."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"45","DOI":"10.1007\/s00792-004-0420-5","article-title":"Effects of inhibitors and NaCl on the oxidation of reduced inorganic sulfur compounds by a marine acidophilic, sulfur-oxidizing bacterium, Acidithiobacillus thiooxidans strain SH","volume":"9","author":"Kamimura","year":"2005","journal-title":"Extremophiles"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"75","DOI":"10.4028\/www.scientific.net\/AMR.71-73.75","article-title":"Pyrite oxidation by halotolerant, thermotolerant bacteria","volume":"71\u201373","author":"Norris","year":"2009","journal-title":"Adv. Mater. Res."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"353","DOI":"10.1016\/S0923-2508(03)00037-8","article-title":"Characterization and identification of an iron-oxidizing, Leptospirillum- like bacterium, present in the high sulfate leaching solution of a commercial bioleaching plant","volume":"154","author":"Romero","year":"2003","journal-title":"Res. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"370","DOI":"10.1134\/S0026261715030091","article-title":"Physiological properties of Acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans strains isolated from sulfide ore deposits in Kazakhstan","volume":"84","author":"Kanaev","year":"2015","journal-title":"Microbiology"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Torres, C.M., Ghorbani, Y., Hern\u00e1ndez, P.C., Justel, F.J., Aravena, M.I., and Herreros, O.O. (2019). Cupric and Chloride Ions: Leaching of Chalcopyrite Concentrate with Low Chloride Concentration Media. Minerals, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/min9100639"}],"container-title":["Materials"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1996-1944\/18\/18\/4407\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,9]],"date-time":"2025-10-09T18:46:45Z","timestamp":1760035605000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1996-1944\/18\/18\/4407"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,21]]},"references-count":51,"journal-issue":{"issue":"18","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,9]]}},"alternative-id":["ma18184407"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ma18184407","relation":{},"ISSN":["1996-1944"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1996-1944","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,21]]}}}