{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,16]],"date-time":"2025-12-16T17:29:15Z","timestamp":1765906155135,"version":"3.48.0"},"reference-count":55,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"24","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,16]],"date-time":"2025-12-16T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1765843200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Materials"],"abstract":"<jats:p>A series of high-cycle rotating-bending fatigue tests was conducted on H13 steel produced by electroslag remelting (ESR) and by vacuum induction melting followed by vacuum arc remelting (VIM+VAR). At 107 cycles, the fatigue strength of VIM+VAR steel was 1040 MPa, which is greater than the 967 MPa of ESR steel. A metallographic analysis was conducted to compare the structure and grain size of the two steels. The results indicated that while the two steels were similar, ESR steel contained a greater number of larger inclusions and carbides. The mean inclusion size in VIM+VAR steel was approximately 55% of that in ESR steel, and the maximum inclusion size was around 44%. Notwithstanding this finding, the fatigue strength of VIM+VAR steel was found to be approximately 7.5% higher. Scanning electron microscopy of fracture surfaces revealed that the primary cause of crack initiation was predominantly oxides or oxide-sulfide composites. The measurements obtained for inclusion size, fisheye diameter, and crack propagation length indicated that the fatigue life of the material is governed primarily by the applied stress and the size of the inclusion. The presence of larger inclusions has been demonstrated to reduce the crack-propagation stage and decrease the steel\u2019s tolerance to defects, thereby reducing fatigue life and endurance limit. The researchers derived formulae relating inclusion size to stress intensity factor and fatigue life by utilizing the Paris law. These equations \u00b7the fatigue-fracture mechanism and provided a basis for predicting the rotating-bending fatigue life of H13 steel.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ma18245655","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,16]],"date-time":"2025-12-16T17:22:58Z","timestamp":1765905778000},"page":"5655","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Effect of Metallurgical Process on Rotational Bending Fatigue Properties of H13 Hot Work Die Steel"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"18","author":[{"given":"Yunling","family":"Li","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Central Iron & Steel Research Institute Co., Ltd., Beijing 100081, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Dangshen","family":"Ma","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Central Iron & Steel Research Institute Co., Ltd., Beijing 100081, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Shulan","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Central Iron & Steel Research Institute Co., Ltd., Beijing 100081, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Xiaofei","family":"Sun","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"NCS Testing Technology Co., Ltd., Beijing 100081, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Yuan","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Power E-Procurement (Beijing) Technology Co., Ltd., Beijing 100080, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Zijian","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Power E-Procurement (Beijing) Technology Co., Ltd., Beijing 100080, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Zhenqian","family":"Zhong","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"NCS Testing Technology Co., Ltd., Beijing 100081, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,16]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","first-page":"91","article-title":"Heat Treatment Process of H13 Die Steel for Precision Forged Gear","volume":"41","author":"Guan","year":"2016","journal-title":"Heat Treat. Met."},{"key":"ref_2","first-page":"7","article-title":"FEM and Experiment Study on Fatigue Life of H13 Hot-extruded Mandrel","volume":"54","author":"Qiu","year":"2025","journal-title":"Steel Pipe"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3141","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jmrt.2024.03.193","article-title":"Modification of microstructure and mechanical properties in H13 steel by introducing oxide particles using vacuum casting","volume":"30","author":"Xiao","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Mater. Res. Technol."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"145536","DOI":"10.1016\/j.msea.2023.145536","article-title":"H13 tool steel fabricated by wire arc additive manufacturing: Solidification mode, microstructure evolution mechanism and mechanical properties","volume":"883","author":"Du","year":"2023","journal-title":"Mater. Sci. Eng. A"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"461","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijrmhm.2013.06.004","article-title":"Evaluation of machinability of hardened and cryo-treated AISI H13 hot work tool steel with ceramic inserts","volume":"41","author":"Kara","year":"2013","journal-title":"Int. J. Refract. Met. Hard Mater."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1375","DOI":"10.1016\/j.wear.2007.02.007","article-title":"Influence of the nitriding time in the wear behaviour of an AISI H13 steel during a crankshaft forging process","volume":"263","author":"Castro","year":"2007","journal-title":"Wear"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"205361","DOI":"10.1016\/j.wear.2024.205361","article-title":"Experimental study of the wear behavior of tunnel boring machine disc cutter ring under Fe-based coatings","volume":"548","author":"Lin","year":"2024","journal-title":"Wear"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5100","DOI":"10.1007\/s11663-025-03632-6","article-title":"Effect of Mg\u2013Ce Treatment on Cleanliness and Primary Carbides of H13 Hot Work Die Steel","volume":"56","author":"Ren","year":"2025","journal-title":"Met. Mater. Trans. B"},{"key":"ref_9","first-page":"47","article-title":"Effect of Pre-tempering Process on Microstructure and Properties of H13 Steel","volume":"48","author":"Wang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Mater. Mech. Eng."},{"key":"ref_10","first-page":"38","article-title":"Effect of cryogenic treatment on microstructure and mechanical properties of H13 steel","volume":"49","author":"Di","year":"2024","journal-title":"Heat Treat. Met."},{"key":"ref_11","first-page":"69","article-title":"Characteristics of Non-metallic Inclusions in H13 Steel Produced by Different Smelting Processes and Their Effect on Mechanical Properties","volume":"48","author":"Di","year":"2024","journal-title":"Mater. Mech. Eng."},{"key":"ref_12","first-page":"55","article-title":"Characterization of inclusions in GCrl5 bearing steel by ASPEX and rotary bending fatigue methods","volume":"54","author":"Shi","year":"2019","journal-title":"Iron Steel"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"326","DOI":"10.1007\/s11741-001-0049-x","article-title":"Influence of different surface treatments of H13 hot work die steel on its thermal fatigue behaviors","volume":"5","author":"Min","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Shanghai Univ. (Engl. Ed.)"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"39","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apsusc.2017.03.185","article-title":"Effect of nitrided-layer microstructure control on wear behavior of AISI H13 hot work die steel","volume":"431","author":"Wang","year":"2018","journal-title":"Appl. Surf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"114132","DOI":"10.1016\/j.matdes.2025.114132","article-title":"Effect of microstructure on machinability of extruded and conventional H13 tool steel","volume":"254","author":"Kolomy","year":"2025","journal-title":"Mater. Des."},{"key":"ref_16","unstructured":"Lin, H., Zhou, H., Zhu, G., Fan, K., and Dai, X. Reverse identification and verification of J-C constitutive parameters of H13 steel united with finite element method. Ordnance Mater. Sci. Eng."},{"key":"ref_17","first-page":"42~48+62","article-title":"Room Temperature Tensile Test and Simulative Study on Crystal Plasticity for H13 Steel","volume":"47","author":"Dai","year":"2025","journal-title":"Shanghai Met."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11595","DOI":"10.1007\/s40964-025-01304-0","article-title":"Assessment of deposition strategy and overlap in laser-directed energy deposition of H13 tool steel","volume":"10","author":"Silvestri","year":"2025","journal-title":"Prog. Addit. Manuf."},{"key":"ref_19","first-page":"130","article-title":"Effect of Y2O3 Addition in Laser Cladding on the Thermal Fatigue of Stellite6 coated H13 Hot Forging Die Substrate Surface","volume":"38","author":"Zhou","year":"2025","journal-title":"China Surf. Eng."},{"key":"ref_20","first-page":"63","article-title":"Study on Microstructure and Properties of CrAIN\/TiAIN Composite Coatings on H13 Steel","volume":"53","author":"Shao","year":"2025","journal-title":"Guangzhou Chem. Ind."},{"key":"ref_21","first-page":"325","article-title":"Friction properties of H13 steel nitrocarburizing-modified by hollow cathode plasma source","volume":"50","author":"Liao","year":"2025","journal-title":"Heat Treat. Met."},{"key":"ref_22","first-page":"1232","article-title":"TEM specimen preparation techniques","volume":"2","author":"Rao","year":"2010","journal-title":"Microsc. Sci. Technol. Appl. Educ."},{"key":"ref_23","unstructured":"Zhan, D., Wang, J., Qi, M., Qiu, G., Wang, D., Qu, L., Ma, J., Li, C., Zhang, H., and Jiang, Z. (2023). A Low-Temperature Electrolysis Extraction Carbide Refrigerator and Its Use Method: China. (109254064 B[P]), CN."},{"key":"ref_24","unstructured":"(2021). State Administration for Market RegulationMetallic Materials-Tensile Testing-Part 1: Method of Test at Room Temperature. (Standard No. GB\/T 228.1-2021)."},{"key":"ref_25","unstructured":"(2025). State Administration for Market RegulationMetallic Materials-Fatigue Testing-Rotating bar Bending Method. (Standard No. GB\/T 4337-2025)."},{"key":"ref_26","unstructured":"Wang, J., Xu, P., and Gao, S. (2016). Mechanical Engineering Materials, Tsinghua University Press."},{"key":"ref_27","first-page":"114","article-title":"Effect of double quenching on microstructure and properties of GCr15 bearing steel","volume":"57","author":"Ban","year":"2022","journal-title":"Iron Steel"},{"key":"ref_28","unstructured":"Yang, P. (2007). Electron Backscatter Diffraction Technique and Application, Metallurgical Industry Press."},{"key":"ref_29","first-page":"167","article-title":"Effect of Oil Quenching and Tempering Treatment on the Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of H13 Steel","volume":"17","author":"Wang","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Netshape Form. Eng."},{"key":"ref_30","first-page":"43","article-title":"Effect of Nb Content on Dendrite Segregation and Carbide Composition and Morphology of H13 Steel","volume":"46","author":"Ouyang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Mater. Mech. Eng."},{"key":"ref_31","first-page":"68","article-title":"Formation and affecting factors of V-rich carbides in H13 steel","volume":"53","author":"Sun","year":"2018","journal-title":"Iron Steel"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105854","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijfatigue.2020.105854","article-title":"Melting route effects on the rotatory bending fatigue and rolling contact fatigue properties of high carbon bearing steel SAE52100","volume":"140","author":"Cao","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Fatigue"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9614","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jmrt.2024.12.007","article-title":"Tailoring the microstructure and mechanical properties of H13 steel by controlling the pre-precipitation of VC carbides from austenite","volume":"33","author":"Wang","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Mater. Res. Technol."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1299\/jsmea.49.1","article-title":"Subsurface crack initiation and propagation mechanism under the super-long fatigue regime for high speed tool steel (JIS SKH51) by fracture surface topographic analysis","volume":"49","author":"Shiozawa","year":"2006","journal-title":"JSME Int. J. Ser. A Solid Mech. Mater. Eng."},{"key":"ref_35","first-page":"673","article-title":"High cycle fatigue crack initiation and propagation behaviors of high strength spring steel wires","volume":"22","author":"Wang","year":"2003","journal-title":"Fatigue Fract. Eng. Mater. Struct."},{"key":"ref_36","first-page":"893","article-title":"Recent development of bearing steel in Japan","volume":"28","author":"Uesugi","year":"1988","journal-title":"Iron Steel Inst. Jpn. Int."},{"key":"ref_37","first-page":"149","article-title":"Relationship of melting practice, inclusion type, and size with fatigue resistance of bearing steels","volume":"1","author":"Monnot","year":"1988","journal-title":"ASTM Spec. Tech. Publ. Eff. Steel Manuf. Process. Qual. Bear. Steels"},{"key":"ref_38","first-page":"85","article-title":"Effects of metallurgical craftwork on high bending fatigue performance of GCr15 steel during high cycle rotation","volume":"53","author":"Shi","year":"2018","journal-title":"Iron Steel"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1521","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijfatigue.2005.08.015","article-title":"Subsurface crack initiation and propagation mechanism in high cycle fatigue regime","volume":"28","author":"Shiozawa","year":"2006","journal-title":"Int. J. Fatigue"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1155","DOI":"10.2320\/jinstmet1952.60.12_1155","article-title":"Identification of trapping sites in high strength steels by secondary ion mass spectrometry for thermally desorbed hydrogen","volume":"60","author":"Takai","year":"1996","journal-title":"J. Jpn. Institue Met."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"236","DOI":"10.1016\/S0921-5093(03)00136-9","article-title":"Ultra-long cycle fatigue of high strength carbon steels part II: Estimation of fatigue limit for failure from internal inclusions","volume":"356","author":"Chapetti","year":"2003","journal-title":"Mater. Sci. Eng. A"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"838","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scriptamat.2012.07.049","article-title":"Mechanism of fatigue crack initiation and propagation in the very high cycle fatigue regime of high-strength steels","volume":"67","author":"Grad","year":"2012","journal-title":"Scr. Mater."},{"key":"ref_43","first-page":"76","article-title":"Inclusion control and fatigue performance in high performance GCr15 bearing steel","volume":"53","author":"Che","year":"2018","journal-title":"Iron Steel"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1305","DOI":"10.1111\/ffe.12344","article-title":"Microscopic and nanoscopic observations of metallurgical structures around inclusions at interior crack initiation site for a bearing steel in very high-cycle fatigue","volume":"38","author":"Sakai","year":"2015","journal-title":"Fatigue Fract. Eng. Mater. Struct."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1111","DOI":"10.1080\/02670836.2015.1119931","article-title":"Very high cycle fatigue of bearing steels with artificial defects in vacuum","volume":"32","author":"Spriestersbach","year":"2016","journal-title":"Mater. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"182","DOI":"10.1016\/j.msea.2018.03.031","article-title":"Mechanisms of void formation during uniaxial tensile testing in a low-temperature-aged U-Nb alloy","volume":"723","author":"Chen","year":"2008","journal-title":"Mater. Sci. Eng. A"},{"key":"ref_47","unstructured":"Wang, Z., and Chen, S. (2009). Advanced Fracture Mechanics, Science Press."},{"key":"ref_48","unstructured":"Cheng, J., and Zhao, S. (2006). Fracture Mechanics, Science Press."},{"key":"ref_49","unstructured":"Wang, P. (2023). Investigation on High Cycle Fatigue Damage Mechanism and Fatigue Performance Optimization of GCr15 Bearing Steels. [Ph.D. Thesis, University of Science and Technology of China]."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"114","DOI":"10.1007\/s13632-014-0128-6","article-title":"An Investigation into the Fatigue Crack Growth Rate of Electron Beam-Welded H13 Tool Steel: Effect of Welding and Post-Weld Heat Treatment","volume":"3","author":"Shah","year":"2014","journal-title":"Metallogr. Microstruct. Anal."},{"key":"ref_51","unstructured":"Hou, R. (2021). Effect of Plasma Enhanced Diffusion Treatment at Low Temperature on the Microstructure and Property of H13 Steel. [Bachelor\u2019s Thesis, South China University of Technology]."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"118","DOI":"10.1179\/mst.1987.3.2.118","article-title":"Fracture toughness of M2 and H13 alloy tool steels","volume":"3","author":"Okorafor","year":"1987","journal-title":"Mater. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Deirmina, F., Amirabdollahian, S., Pellizzari, M., and Molinari, A. (2024). Effect of Different Post-Processing Thermal Treatments on the Fracture Toughness and Tempering Resistance of Additively Manufactured H13 Hot-Work Tool Steel. Metals, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/met14010112"},{"key":"ref_54","first-page":"73","article-title":"Analysis of rotary bending gigacycle fatigue properties of bearing steel GCr15","volume":"45","author":"Lu","year":"2009","journal-title":"Acta Metall. Sin."},{"key":"ref_55","unstructured":"Bathias, C. (2016). Fatigue of Materials and Structures, National Defense Industry Press."}],"container-title":["Materials"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1996-1944\/18\/24\/5655\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,16]],"date-time":"2025-12-16T17:24:20Z","timestamp":1765905860000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1996-1944\/18\/24\/5655"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,16]]},"references-count":55,"journal-issue":{"issue":"24","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,12]]}},"alternative-id":["ma18245655"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ma18245655","relation":{},"ISSN":["1996-1944"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1996-1944","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,16]]}}}