{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,19]],"date-time":"2025-12-19T05:28:17Z","timestamp":1766122097301,"version":"3.48.0"},"reference-count":36,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"24","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,17]],"date-time":"2025-12-17T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1765929600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Ministry of Education and Science","award":["NdS-II\/SP\/0173\/2024\/01"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["NdS-II\/SP\/0173\/2024\/01"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Materials"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Dental composites are commonly used for the restoration of hard tooth tissues, but their low fracture toughness may limit their lifespan. In this study, the effect of liquid rubber modification on the mechanical properties and fracture mechanisms of two types of dental composites, flow and classic, was evaluated. The study used experimental composites containing a mixture of dimethacrylate resins: BisGMA (20% by weight), BisEMA (30% by weight), UDMA (30% by weight), and TEGDMA (20% by weight). Composites were reinforced with Al-Ba-B-Si glass, Ba-Al-B-F-Si glass with particle sizes of 0.7 and 2 \u03bcm respectively, as well as pyrogenic silica (20 nm). The inorganic phase was introduced in an amount of 50% vol. for flow material and 80% vol. for classic composite. As a modifier, Hypro 2000X168LC VTB liquid rubber (Huntsman International LLC, USA) was used in an amount of 5% by weight relative to the matrix. The flexural strength, Young\u2019s modulus, and fracture toughness were evaluated. Numerical FEM analysis allowed for the evaluation of stress distribution in the filling area. The results confirmed that the modification of composites with liquid rubber contributes to an increase in fracture toughness. For the flow-type material, the fracture toughness increased from 1.04 to 1.13 MPa\u00b7m1\/2. At the same time, a decrease in flexural strength from 71.90 MPa to 61.48 MPa and in Young\u2019s modulus from 2.98 GPa to 2.53 GPa. In the case of the classical composite, the modification with liquid rubber also improved the resistance to fracture, increasing it from 1.97 to 2.18 MPa\u00b7m1\/2 while the flexural strength decreased from 102.30 MPa to 90.96 MPa, and the modulus dropped from 7.33 GPa to 6.16 GPa. FEA analysis confirmed that modified composites exhibit a more favorable stress distribution with lower tensile stress levels (approximately 20 MPa in contrast to 25 MPa for the classic composite). Mechanisms of fracture and strengthening were also identified. The main fracture mechanism was intermolecular cracking with crack deflections. Modification with liquid rubber resulted in the formation of elastic bridges and plastic shear zones at the front of the crack.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ma18245664","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,17]],"date-time":"2025-12-17T13:42:52Z","timestamp":1765978972000},"page":"5664","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Mechanical Properties of Dental Composites Modified with Liquid Rubber and Their Effect on Stress Distribution in Fillings"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"18","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5784-3701","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Monika","family":"Sowa","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Lublin University of Technology, Nadbystrzycka St. 36, 20-618 Lublin, Poland"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2232-9184","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Leszek","family":"Borkowski","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biochemistry and Biotechnology, Medical University of Lublin, Chodzki St. 1, 20-093 Lublin, Poland"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4920-4613","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Krzysztof","family":"Pa\u0142ka","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Lublin University of Technology, Nadbystrzycka St. 36, 20-618 Lublin, Poland"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,17]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"257","DOI":"10.1177\/0022034518822808","article-title":"The Evolution of Dental Materials over the Past Century: Silver and Gold to Tooth Color and Beyond","volume":"98","author":"Bayne","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. 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