{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,14]],"date-time":"2026-10-14T03:01:29Z","timestamp":1791946889718,"version":"4.3.4"},"reference-count":27,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,5]],"date-time":"2026-01-05T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1767571200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Liaoning Province Key R&D Program","award":["ZX20250018"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["ZX20250018"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Materials"],"abstract":"<jats:p>As a metallurgical solid waste rich in active calcium oxide, magnesium slag (MS) is endowed with significant carbon dioxide sequestration potential due to its inherent properties, providing a feasible path for the simultaneous solution of waste residue disposal and carbon dioxide emission reduction. However, current research has neither clarified the kinetic mechanism (core theoretical support for carbon dioxide sequestration industrialization) nor systematically evaluated the life cycle environmental impacts of MS\u2019s two carbonation routes (direct or indirect leaching carbonation). To address this, this study explores kinetic laws via the single-factor control variable method, and combines life cycle assessment (LCA) to fill the gap, providing key theoretical support for process optimization and engineering promotion. Kinetic results show indirect carbon dioxide sequestration (ICDS) forms an inert silicon-rich layer (core-shrinkage model, mixed control, 28.4 kJ\/mol activation energy), while direct carbon dioxide sequestration (DCDS) involves dual-layer formation and pore blockage (mixed control, 14.0 kJ\/mol). The ICDS achieves a higher reaction rate of 89%, compared to 63% for the DCDS. In life cycle assessments, DCDS demonstrates outstanding overall environmental sustainability, particularly excelling in carbon dioxide sequestration and acidification control, while ICDS exhibits significant environmental drawbacks (such as high carbon dioxide emissions and ecological toxicity). However, ICDS possesses advantages such as high feedstock utilization and strong synthesis capabilities for high-value-added products. Through targeted optimization, its environmental indicators can be reduced in the future, making it suitable for specific scenarios like high-end calcium carbonate production and resource utilization of low-grade magnesium slag.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ma19010193","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,5]],"date-time":"2026-01-05T10:03:48Z","timestamp":1767607428000},"page":"193","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":3,"title":["Comparative Analysis of Two CO2 Sequestration Pathways for Magnesium Slag Based on Kinetics and Life Cycle Assessment"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"19","author":[{"given":"Zhen","family":"Lu","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Metallurgy, Northeastern University, Shenyang 110819, China"},{"name":"Key Laboratory for Ecological Metallurgy of Multimetallic Mineral, Ministry of Education, Northeastern University, Shenyang 110819, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4095-4362","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yan","family":"Wu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Metallurgy, Northeastern University, Shenyang 110819, China"},{"name":"Key Laboratory for Ecological Metallurgy of Multimetallic Mineral, Ministry of Education, Northeastern University, Shenyang 110819, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Hongshuo","family":"Ding","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Metallurgy, Northeastern University, Shenyang 110819, China"},{"name":"Key Laboratory for Ecological Metallurgy of Multimetallic Mineral, Ministry of Education, Northeastern University, Shenyang 110819, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Chengyuan","family":"Zhao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Metallurgy, Northeastern University, Shenyang 110819, China"},{"name":"Key Laboratory for Ecological Metallurgy of Multimetallic Mineral, Ministry of Education, Northeastern University, Shenyang 110819, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yunlong","family":"Bai","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Metallurgy, Northeastern University, Shenyang 110819, China"},{"name":"Key Laboratory for Ecological Metallurgy of Multimetallic Mineral, Ministry of Education, Northeastern University, Shenyang 110819, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Li","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Metallurgy, Northeastern University, Shenyang 110819, China"},{"name":"Key Laboratory for Ecological Metallurgy of Multimetallic Mineral, Ministry of Education, Northeastern University, Shenyang 110819, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,5]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Guo, Y., Sun, M., Zhang, W., and Wang, L. (2023). Machine Learning in Enhancing Corrosion Resistance of Magnesium Alloys: A Comprehensive Review. Metals, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/met13101790"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kuangdi, X. (2024). Pidgeon Process. The ECPH Encyclopedia of Mining and Metallurgy, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-981-99-2086-0"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"290","DOI":"10.1089\/ees.2015.0097","article-title":"Chemical, Mineralogical, and Morphological Characteristics of Pidgeon Magnesium Slag","volume":"33","author":"Li","year":"2016","journal-title":"Environ. Eng. Sci."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1671","DOI":"10.1016\/S2095-3119(19)62835-2","article-title":"Environmental risks for application of magnesium slag to soils in China","volume":"19","author":"Wang","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Integr. Agric."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ye, J., Liu, S., Zhao, Y., Li, Y., Fang, J., Zhang, H., and Guan, X. (2023). Development of Ultrafine Mineral Admixture from Magnesium Slag and Sequestration of CO2. Buildings, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/buildings13010204"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhu, M., Zhai, R., Zhu, M., and He, J. (2024). Evaluating Alkali Activation in Magnesium Slag Carbonization and Its Mechanism. Crystals, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/cryst14100847"},{"key":"ref_7","first-page":"e03204","article-title":"Carbonation curing of magnesium-coal slag solid waste backfill material: Study on properties of flow, mechanics and carbon sequestration","volume":"20","author":"Fang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Case Stud. Constr. Mater."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102829","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcou.2024.102829","article-title":"Preparation of ultra-high strength carbonated compacts via accelerated carbonation of magnesium slag","volume":"83","author":"Zhang","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. CO2 Util."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"136387","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chemosphere.2022.136387","article-title":"Immobilization of lead (Pb) using ladle furnace slag and carbon dioxide","volume":"308","author":"Xu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Chemosphere"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"293","DOI":"10.1260\/014459808787945362","article-title":"The Assesment for CO2 Sequestration Potential by Magnesium silicate Minerals in Turkey: Cases of Orhaneli-Bursa and Divrigi-Sivas Regions","volume":"26","author":"Baris","year":"2008","journal-title":"Energy Explor. Exploit."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102367","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcou.2022.102367","article-title":"Mechanochemical activation for improving the direct mineral carbonation efficiency and capacity of a timber biomass ash","volume":"68","author":"Ke","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. CO2 Util."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"M\u00e1rmol, G., Fern\u00e1ndez-Jim\u00e9nez, A., Blanco-Varela, M.-T., and Garc\u00eda-Lodeiro, I. (2025). Carbonation and Phase Evolution in MgO-SiO2 Cements: Impact on Strength. Molecules, 30.","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules30051072"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12091","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.est.9b02020","article-title":"United Conversion Process Coupling CO2 Mineralization with Thermochemical Hydrogen Production","volume":"53","author":"Xu","year":"2019","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5258","DOI":"10.1021\/am508432w","article-title":"Optimized carbonation of magnesium silicate mineral for CO2 storage","volume":"7","author":"Eikeland","year":"2015","journal-title":"ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1000","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jrmge.2023.05.005","article-title":"Dredged marine soil stabilization using magnesia cement augmented with biochar\/slag","volume":"16","author":"Onyekwena","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Rock Mech. Geotech. Eng."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15564","DOI":"10.1021\/acsomega.0c04758","article-title":"Investigation of Mineral Carbonation with Direct Bubbling into Concrete Sludge","volume":"6","author":"Abe","year":"2021","journal-title":"ACS Omega"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"479","DOI":"10.1007\/s42250-023-00729-w","article-title":"Leaching Kinetics of Spent 6F22 Dry Cells Roast Residue in Nitric and Hydrochloric Acids Using a Modified Shrinking Core Model","volume":"7","author":"Sanda","year":"2023","journal-title":"Chem. Afr."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"208","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cjche.2019.08.006","article-title":"Leaching calcium from phosphogypsum desulfurization slag by using ammonium chloride solution: Thermodynamics and kinetics study","volume":"28","author":"Zhong","year":"2020","journal-title":"Chin. J. Chem. Eng."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6","DOI":"10.1016\/j.physc.2012.09.016","article-title":"Bound states and vortex core shrinking effects in iron-based superconductors","volume":"48","author":"Ye","year":"2013","journal-title":"Phys. C Supercond."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"230","DOI":"10.1007\/s40831-022-00640-7","article-title":"Process Optimization and Kinetics of Titanium Leaching from Mechanically Activated Titanium-Bearing Blast Furnace Slag","volume":"9","author":"Zhu","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Sustain. Metall."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"77","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cej.2012.03.068","article-title":"Chemical kinetics modeling and process parameter sensitivity for precipitated calcium carbonate production from steelmaking slags","volume":"19","author":"Mattila","year":"2012","journal-title":"Chem. Eng. J."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"743","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2024.136743","article-title":"Leaching kinetics and dissolution model of steel slag in NaOH solution","volume":"434","author":"Yan","year":"2024","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3667","DOI":"10.1007\/s11696-024-03338-0","article-title":"Study on the kinetics and mechanism of ultrasonic-microwave synergistic enhancement for leaching indium from zinc oxide dust","volume":"78","author":"Li","year":"2024","journal-title":"Chem. Pap."},{"key":"ref_24","first-page":"42","article-title":"Carbon dioxide sequestration by industrial wastes through mineral carbonation: Current status and perspectives","volume":"43","author":"Lin","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Clean. Prod."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"166210","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2023.166210","article-title":"Environmental, economic and engineering performances of aqueous carbonated steel slag powders as alternative material in cement pastes: Influence of particle size","volume":"90","author":"Li","year":"2023","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"302","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhazmat.2014.09.016","article-title":"Thin-film versus slurry-phase carbonation of steel slag: CO2 uptake and effects on mineralogy","volume":"28","author":"Baciocchi","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Hazard. Mater."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5393","DOI":"10.1016\/j.egypro.2017.03.1675","article-title":"Comparative Life-cycle Assessment of Slurry and Wet Accelerated Carbonation of BOF Slag","volume":"11","author":"Ghasemi","year":"2017","journal-title":"Energy Procedia"}],"container-title":["Materials"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1996-1944\/19\/1\/193\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,5]],"date-time":"2026-01-05T10:09:39Z","timestamp":1767607779000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1996-1944\/19\/1\/193"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,5]]},"references-count":27,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,1]]}},"alternative-id":["ma19010193"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ma19010193","relation":{},"ISSN":["1996-1944"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1996-1944","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,5]]}}}