{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,16]],"date-time":"2026-01-16T09:17:59Z","timestamp":1768555079693,"version":"3.49.0"},"reference-count":53,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,15]],"date-time":"2026-01-15T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1768435200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"CGN-USTB Joint Research and Development Center for Advanced Energy Materials and Service Safety","award":["39031060"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["39031060"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Materials"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Aluminum, the primary structural material used in spacecraft, operates in low Earth orbit (LEO). It is subjected to high-energy electron irradiation with energies ranging from 0.1 to 10 MeV, which produces significant irradiation damage. Understanding the characteristics of irradiation defects with crystallographic orientations is crucial for analyzing the failure of spacecraft components and for developing aerospace materials with improved irradiation resistance. In this study, pure aluminum was irradiated in situ at room temperature using 200 kV transmission electron microscopy. The irradiation defects were comparatively analyzed for four crystallographic orientations, focusing on the size, density, and interstitial content of &lt;111&gt; and &lt;110&gt; dislocation loops. For all four irradiation directions, the interstitial atom density (IAD) within &lt;111&gt; loops is significantly higher than that in &lt;110&gt; loops. Notably, under [110]-direction irradiation, IAD in &lt;111&gt; loops is approximately 55 times that in &lt;110&gt; loops. This phenomenon is attributed to the one-dimensional migration of &lt;110&gt; loops. Among the four irradiation directions, the total IAD in the two types of loops decreases in the order: [110] &gt; [111] &gt; [310] &gt; [100]. The threshold displacement energy (Ed) of aluminum at room temperature is inferred to follow the relationship: [110] &lt; [111] &lt; [310] &lt; [100].<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ma19020350","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,15]],"date-time":"2026-01-15T14:35:38Z","timestamp":1768487738000},"page":"350","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Effect of Crystal Orientation on Dislocation Loop Evolution Under Electron Radiation in Pure Aluminum"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"19","author":[{"given":"Yupeng","family":"Yin","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Science and Technology Beijing, Beijing 100083, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Qianfei","family":"Feng","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Science and Technology Beijing, Beijing 100083, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Wentuo","family":"Han","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Science and Technology Beijing, Beijing 100083, China"},{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Nuclear Power Safety Technology and Equipment, University of Science and Technology Beijing, Beijing 100083, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5723-8058","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Xiaoou","family":"Yi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Science and Technology Beijing, Beijing 100083, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3530-9396","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Pingping","family":"Liu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Science and Technology Beijing, Beijing 100083, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Kenta","family":"Yoshida","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Oarai Center, Institute of Material Research, Tohoku University, Oarai 311-1313, Ibaraki, Japan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Koji","family":"Inoue","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Oarai Center, Institute of Material Research, Tohoku University, Oarai 311-1313, Ibaraki, Japan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5736-8971","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Qian","family":"Zhan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Science and Technology Beijing, Beijing 100083, China"},{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Nuclear Power Safety Technology and Equipment, University of Science and Technology Beijing, Beijing 100083, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Somei","family":"Ohnuki","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Science and Technology Beijing, Beijing 100083, China"},{"name":"School of Engineering, Hokkaido University, Sapporo 060-8628, Hokkaido, Japan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Farong","family":"Wan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Science and Technology Beijing, Beijing 100083, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,15]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12484","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jmrt.2020.09.003","article-title":"A review: Drilling performance and hole quality of aluminium alloys for aerospace applications","volume":"9","author":"Aamir","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Mater. Res. Technol."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3067","DOI":"10.1007\/s00170-016-8431-9","article-title":"Machining of aluminum alloys: A review","volume":"86","author":"Santos","year":"2016","journal-title":"Int. J. Adv. Manuf. Technol."},{"key":"ref_3","unstructured":"Yost, B., and Weston, S. (2025, December 20). Structures, Materials, and Mechanisms, Available online: https:\/\/www.nasa.gov\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/02\/soa-2024.pdf."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"944","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jmrt.2023.09.274","article-title":"Development and applications of aluminum alloys for aerospace industry","volume":"27","author":"Li","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Mater. Res. Technol."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"846","DOI":"10.1038\/s41563-018-0184-4","article-title":"Materials for space exploration and settlement","volume":"17","author":"Ghidini","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nat. Mater."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nwankwo, V.U., Jibiri, N.N., and Kio, M.T. (2020). The Impact of Space Radiation Environment on Satellites Operation in Near-Earth Space. Satellites Missions and Technologies for Geosciences, IntechOpen.","DOI":"10.5772\/intechopen.90115"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1691","DOI":"10.1109\/TNS.2012.2225846","article-title":"Near-Earth Space Radiation Models","volume":"60","author":"Xapsos","year":"2013","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Nucl. Sci."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"344","DOI":"10.1109\/23.490754","article-title":"High-Energy Charged Particles in Space at One Astronomical Unit","volume":"43","author":"Feynman","year":"1996","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Nucl. Sci."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1492","DOI":"10.1007\/s12540-023-01594-5","article-title":"Cryogenic Deformation Behaviour of Aluminium Alloy 6061-T6","volume":"30","author":"Jin","year":"2024","journal-title":"Met. Mater. Int."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113403","DOI":"10.1016\/j.matchar.2023.113403","article-title":"Effect of strain rate on the deformation of 6061-T6 aluminum alloy at cryogenic temperature","volume":"206","author":"Noh","year":"2023","journal-title":"Mater. Charact."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.1016\/0022-3115(81)90415-3","article-title":"Microstructure and tensile properties of heavily irradiated 5052-0 aluminum alloy","volume":"97","author":"Farrell","year":"1981","journal-title":"J. Nucl. Mater."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"152939","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jnucmat.2021.152939","article-title":"Influence of neutron irradiation on Al-6061 alloy produced via ultrasonic additive manufacturing","volume":"550","author":"Gussev","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Nucl. Mater."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gillemot, F., Kolluri, M., Szenthe, I., Naziris, F., and Berzy, L. (2025). Review of Radiation Embrittlement of Aluminum Alloys Used in Research Reactors. Materials, 18.","DOI":"10.3390\/ma18225236"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"305","DOI":"10.1016\/0022-3115(89)90208-0","article-title":"Neutron irradiation effects on commercial purity type A5 aluminum","volume":"165","author":"Munitz","year":"1989","journal-title":"J. Nucl. Mater."},{"key":"ref_15","unstructured":"Was, G.S. (2016). Fundamentals of Radiation Materials Science, Springer Nature."},{"key":"ref_16","unstructured":"Farong, W. (2025). Radiation Damage in Metallic Materials, University of Science and Technology of China Press."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"37","DOI":"10.1016\/0273-1177(95)00510-L","article-title":"Energetic particle environment in near-Earth orbit","volume":"17","author":"Klecker","year":"1996","journal-title":"Adv. Space Res."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8319","DOI":"10.1029\/2018JA025940","article-title":"Earth\u2019s Van Allen Radiation Belts: From Discovery to the Van Allen Probes Era","volume":"124","author":"Li","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Space Phys."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1423","DOI":"10.1109\/5.90113","article-title":"The space radiation environment for electronics","volume":"76","author":"Stassinopoulos","year":"1988","journal-title":"Proc. IEEE"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pham, K.D., Cox, J.L., Johnston, W.R., O\u2019Brien, T.P., Ginet, G.P., Huston, S.L., Guild, T.B., and Fennelly, J.A. (2014). AE9\/AP9\/SPM: New models for radiation belt and space plasma specification. Proceedings of the Sensors and Systems for Space Applications VII, SPIE.","DOI":"10.1117\/12.2049836"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1983","DOI":"10.1029\/97GL02055","article-title":"Energetic electron precipitation from the inner zone","volume":"24","author":"Abel","year":"1997","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"430","DOI":"10.1038\/183430a0","article-title":"Radiation around the Earth to a radial distance of 107,400 km","volume":"183","author":"Frannk","year":"1959","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"125940","DOI":"10.1088\/1402-4896\/ae2898","article-title":"Selective evolution of <111> and <110> and dislocation loops in pure aluminum governed by grain boundaries during in situ irradiation","volume":"100","author":"Zhang","year":"2025","journal-title":"Phys. Scr."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"116891","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scriptamat.2025.116891","article-title":"Experimental measurement of threshold displacement energy in beryllium","volume":"268","author":"Wang","year":"2025","journal-title":"Scr. Mater."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"184501","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jallcom.2025.184501","article-title":"On the formation and evolution dynamics of electron irradiation defects in magnesium using high-voltage electron microscopy","volume":"1044","author":"Dong","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Alloys Compd."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101845","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nme.2024.101845","article-title":"Low-dose damage evolution in pure magnesium under electron irradiation: Effect of foil orientation and pre-existing dislocations","volume":"42","author":"Yu","year":"2025","journal-title":"Nucl. Mater. Energy"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"958","DOI":"10.1103\/PhysRev.185.958","article-title":"Damage and Recovery of Aluminum for Low-Energy Electron Irradiations","volume":"185","author":"Simpson","year":"1969","journal-title":"Phys. Rev. J. Arch."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"535","DOI":"10.1103\/PhysRev.149.535","article-title":"Electron-Irradiation Damage-Rate Measurements in Aluminum","volume":"149","author":"Neely","year":"1966","journal-title":"Phys. Rev."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113149","DOI":"10.1016\/j.matchar.2023.113149","article-title":"Micron-scale 1D migration of interstitial-type dislocation loops in aluminum","volume":"203","author":"Li","year":"2023","journal-title":"Mater. Charact."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"114279","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ultramic.2025.114279","article-title":"Evaluation of electron threshold energy for predicting radiation damage in transmission electron microscopy","volume":"280","author":"Yin","year":"2025","journal-title":"Ultramicroscopy"},{"key":"ref_31","first-page":"1041","article-title":"Radiation damage during HRTEM studies in pure Al and Al alloys","volume":"97","author":"Mingler","year":"2022","journal-title":"Int. J. Mater. Res."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"216101","DOI":"10.7498\/aps.67.20181140","article-title":"Anomalous heat-releasing phenomenon from bubbles in aluminum induced by electron beam irradiation","volume":"67","author":"Du","year":"2018","journal-title":"Acta Phys. Sin."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"026102","DOI":"10.7498\/aps.65.026102","article-title":"The change of microstructure in deuteron-implanted aluminum under electron irradiation","volume":"65","author":"Li","year":"2016","journal-title":"Acta Phys. Sin."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1283","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jmrt.2025.01.100","article-title":"A review on the anomalous exothermic behavior of bubbles in aluminum induced by electron irradiation","volume":"35","author":"Chen","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Mater. Res. Technol."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1393","DOI":"10.1143\/JJAP.20.1393","article-title":"Dependence of the Growth Rate of Interstitial Loops on Irradiated Crystallographic Directions in Electron Irradiated Pure Aluminum","volume":"20","author":"Tanaka","year":"1981","journal-title":"Jpn. J. Appl. Phys."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"381","DOI":"10.1016\/0375-9601(77)90939-2","article-title":"Direct evidence for a very low atom displacement threshold energy around the <110> directions in copper","volume":"63","author":"Yoshida","year":"1977","journal-title":"Phys. Lett. A"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"815","DOI":"10.1080\/14786437508221622","article-title":"Orientation dependence of the threshold displacement energy in copper and vanadium","volume":"32","author":"Kenik","year":"1975","journal-title":"Philos. Mag."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2046","DOI":"10.1103\/PhysRevB.5.2046","article-title":"Anisotropy of the Threshold Energy for the Production of Frenkel Pairs in Tantalum","volume":"5","author":"Jung","year":"1972","journal-title":"Phys. Rev. B"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"747","DOI":"10.1080\/14786435608238150","article-title":"LXXVII.The thermal expansion of aluminium at low temperatures as measured by an X-ray diffraction method","volume":"1","author":"Figgins","year":"1956","journal-title":"Philos. Mag."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"50","DOI":"10.1016\/0029-5493(75)90035-7","article-title":"A proposed method of calculating displacement dose rates","volume":"33","author":"Norgett","year":"1975","journal-title":"Nucl. Eng. Des."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1193","DOI":"10.1080\/01418618108235802","article-title":"The threshold energy for atom displacement in irradiated copper studied by high-voltage electron microscopy","volume":"44","author":"Urban","year":"1981","journal-title":"Philos. Mag. A"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"813","DOI":"10.1002\/pssa.2210040327","article-title":"Irradiation damage in nickel and iron in a high-voltage electron microscope and threshold energy determination","volume":"4","author":"Bourret","year":"1971","journal-title":"Phys. Status Solidi A"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"465","DOI":"10.1002\/pssb.19630030311","article-title":"Zur Deutung der Tieftemperatur-Elektronenbestrahlung von Metallen","volume":"3","author":"Jan","year":"1963","journal-title":"Phys. Status Solidi B"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.1016\/0022-3115(89)90518-7","article-title":"The anisotropy and temperature dependence of the threshold for radiation damage in gold-comparison with other FCC metals","volume":"169","author":"Hohenstein","year":"1989","journal-title":"J. Nucl. Mater."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"57","DOI":"10.1002\/pssa.2211460106","article-title":"Temperature Dependence of the Threshold Energy for Atom Displacements in Cu","volume":"146","author":"Sigle","year":"1994","journal-title":"Phys. Status Solidi A"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"231","DOI":"10.1002\/pssb.19640070120","article-title":"Displacement Threshold Energy and Focuson-Impurity Interaction in Copper near 10 \u00b0K","volume":"7","author":"Kamada","year":"1964","journal-title":"Phys. Status Solidi B"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"993","DOI":"10.1016\/S0022-3115(02)01105-4","article-title":"In situ observation of glide motions of SIA-type loops in vanadium and V\u20135Ti under HVEM irradiation","volume":"307\u2013311","author":"Hayashi","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Nucl. Mater."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1587","DOI":"10.1080\/14786435.2015.1040100","article-title":"One-dimensional migration of interstitial clusters in SUS316L and its model alloys at elevated temperatures","volume":"95","author":"Satoh","year":"2015","journal-title":"Philos. Mag."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1489","DOI":"10.1080\/14786430903008480","article-title":"Obstacles for one-dimensional migration of interstitial clusters in iron","volume":"89","author":"Satoh","year":"2009","journal-title":"Philos. Mag."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"122","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jnucmat.2018.09.001","article-title":"In-Situ observation of the dynamic behavior of cascade defect clusters formed by irradiation with high-energy self-ions at 50 K in Cu","volume":"511","author":"Ono","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Nucl. Mater."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"508","DOI":"10.1038\/s41563-019-0584-0","article-title":"Quantum de-trapping and transport of heavy defects in tungsten","volume":"19","author":"Arakawa","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nat. Mater."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"959","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1148336","article-title":"One-Dimensional Fast Migration of Vacancy Clusters in Metals","volume":"318","author":"Matsukawa","year":"2007","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_53","first-page":"1535","article-title":"Clusters of point defects and one-dimensional motion of clusters during irradiation damage in materials","volume":"42","author":"Wan","year":"2020","journal-title":"Chin. J. Eng."}],"container-title":["Materials"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1996-1944\/19\/2\/350\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,15]],"date-time":"2026-01-15T14:43:17Z","timestamp":1768488197000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1996-1944\/19\/2\/350"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,15]]},"references-count":53,"journal-issue":{"issue":"2","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,1]]}},"alternative-id":["ma19020350"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ma19020350","relation":{},"ISSN":["1996-1944"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1996-1944","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,15]]}}}