{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,15]],"date-time":"2026-10-15T15:57:01Z","timestamp":1792079821253,"version":"4.4.0"},"reference-count":52,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,16]],"date-time":"2026-01-16T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1768521600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Polish Minister of Science and Higher Education as part of the Strategy of the Poznan University of Life Sciences"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Materials"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Sulfate corrosion is a significant durability issue for concrete used in sewage and hydraulic infrastructure. In sulfate-rich environments, the formation of expansive products (e.g., ettringite and thaumasite) leads to a progressive loss of performance. Unlike conventional protection methods, which rely on surface-applied coatings or impregnation, this study examines the use of water-dilutable epoxy resins as an internal, volume-wide admixture dispersed throughout the concrete matrix to provide whole-body protection. The experimental program evaluated the mechanical performance, microstructure, and sulfate ion ingress\/penetration dynamics of resin-modified concretes. The results suggest that using the appropriate amount of resin can limit the penetration of aggressive ions and slow the harmful changes associated with sulfate attack while maintaining the material\u2019s overall performance. Overall, these findings suggest that water-based epoxy admixtures are a promising strategy for improving the durability of concrete in sulfate-exposed environments. They also provide guidance for designing more resistant cementitious materials for modern infrastructure applications.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ma19020364","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,16]],"date-time":"2026-01-16T13:27:53Z","timestamp":1768570073000},"page":"364","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":4,"title":["Water-Soluble Epoxy Resins as an Innovative Method of Protecting Concrete Against Sulfate Corrosion"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"19","author":[{"given":"Wojciech","family":"Kostrzewski","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Construction and Geoengineering, Poznan University of Life Sciences, Pi\u0105tkowska 94 E, 60-649 Poznan, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4078-9600","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ireneusz","family":"Laks","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Construction and Geoengineering, Poznan University of Life Sciences, Pi\u0105tkowska 94 E, 60-649 Poznan, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0032-6313","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Marta","family":"Sybis","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Construction and Geoengineering, Poznan University of Life Sciences, Pi\u0105tkowska 94 E, 60-649 Poznan, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,16]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"Neville, A.M. (1995). Properties of Concrete, Longman."},{"key":"ref_2","first-page":"245","article-title":"Podstawowe W\u0142a\u015bciwo\u015bci Betonu i Jego Trwa\u0142o\u015b\u0107","volume":"14","year":"2009","journal-title":"Cem. Wapno Beton"},{"key":"ref_3","unstructured":"Czarnecki, L., Broniewski, T., and Henning, O. (1995). Chemistry in Construction, Arkady."},{"key":"ref_4","first-page":"434","article-title":"Trzy Zasady Zapobiegania Korozji Betonu","volume":"17","author":"Kurdowski","year":"2012","journal-title":"Cem. Wapno Beton"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1188","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cemconres.2009.07.021","article-title":"Durability of Concrete Exposed to Leaching and External Sulphate Attacks","volume":"39","author":"Loukili","year":"2009","journal-title":"Cem. Concr. Res."},{"key":"ref_6","first-page":"230","article-title":"Korozja Siarczanowa Betonu, Analiza Problemu","volume":"22","author":"Pawluk","year":"2017","journal-title":"Cem. Wapno Beton"},{"key":"ref_7","first-page":"1","article-title":"Three-Layer Repair Coating System for Manholes, Pump Stations, and Tanks in Aggressive Sulfate Environment","volume":"35","author":"Pawlak","year":"2025","journal-title":"Civ. Environ. Eng. Rep."},{"key":"ref_8","first-page":"1477","article-title":"Mechanics of Corrosion of Concrete Sewers by Hydrogen Sulfide","volume":"23","author":"Parker","year":"1951","journal-title":"Sew. Ind. Wastes"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"623","DOI":"10.1016\/S0008-8846(00)00219-2","article-title":"Chemical, Microbiological, and in Situ Test Methods for Biogenic Sulfuric Acid Corrosion of Concrete","volume":"30","author":"Monteny","year":"2000","journal-title":"Cem. Concr. Res."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"36","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cemconres.2017.01.005","article-title":"Evaluation of Concrete Corrosion after Short-and Long-Term Exposure to Chemically and Microbially Generated Sulfuric Acid","volume":"94","author":"Huber","year":"2017","journal-title":"Cem. Concr. Res."},{"key":"ref_11","unstructured":"Assaad Abdelmseeh, V., Jofriet, J., Negi, S., and Hayward, G. (2006). Sulphide, Sulphate and Sulphuric Acid a Corrosion of Concrete in Laboratory Tests, Springer."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"437","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clay.2016.10.029","article-title":"A Novel Geopolymer Application: Coatings to Protect Reinforced Concrete against Corrosion","volume":"135","year":"2017","journal-title":"Appl. Clay Sci."},{"key":"ref_13","first-page":"27","article-title":"Study of Corrosion Protection of Concrete in Sewage Systems with Magnesium Hydroxide Coatings","volume":"2","author":"Merachtsaki","year":"2020","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Proc."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cemconres.2015.06.011","article-title":"Microbiologically Induced Concrete Corrosion: A Case Study from a Combined Sewer Network","volume":"77","author":"Grengg","year":"2015","journal-title":"Cem. Concr. Res."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1327","DOI":"10.1099\/00221287-129-5-1327","article-title":"Thiobacilli of the Corroded Concrete Walls of the Hamburg Sewer System","volume":"129","author":"Milde","year":"1983","journal-title":"Microbiology"},{"key":"ref_16","first-page":"217","article-title":"Microbiologically Induced Corrosion of Concrete in Sanitary Sewerage System: A Review of Processes and Control Mechanisms","volume":"2021","author":"Kaushal","year":"2021","journal-title":"Pipelines"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"433","DOI":"10.1016\/S1004-9541(11)60150-X","article-title":"Microbiologically Induced Corrosion of Concrete and Protective Coatings in Gravity Sewers","volume":"20","author":"Valix","year":"2012","journal-title":"Chin. J. Chem. Eng."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"49","DOI":"10.4028\/www.scientific.net\/AMR.1129.49","article-title":"Use of Polymers to Enhance Concrete Performance","volume":"1129","author":"Czarnecki","year":"2015","journal-title":"Adv. Mater. Res."},{"key":"ref_19","first-page":"785","article-title":"Chemical Interaction between Polymer and Cement in Polymer-Cement Concrete","volume":"64","author":"Wang","year":"2016","journal-title":"Bull. Pol. Acad. Sci. Technol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3893","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2011.04.014","article-title":"Evaluation of Coatings, Mortars and Mix Design for Protection of Concrete against Sulphur Oxidising Bacteria","volume":"25","author":"Berndt","year":"2011","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3485","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2009.08.001","article-title":"Sulphuric Acid Resistance of Plain, Polymer Modified, and Fly Ash Cement Concretes","volume":"23","author":"Jalali","year":"2009","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_22","first-page":"103","article-title":"Durability of Portland Concrete Containing Polymeric Fillers and Fly Ash","volume":"26","author":"Brostow","year":"2020","journal-title":"Mater. Sci."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mirsayapov, I., Yakupov, S., and Hassoun, M. (2020). About Concrete and Reinforced Concrete Corrosion, IOP Publishing.","DOI":"10.1088\/1757-899X\/890\/1\/012061"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1949","DOI":"10.1007\/s00289-021-03577-1","article-title":"Application of Epoxy Resins in Building Materials: Progress and Prospects","volume":"79","author":"Rahman","year":"2022","journal-title":"Polym. Bull."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"117887","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2019.117887","article-title":"Durability of Epoxy Polymer and Ordinary Cement Concrete in Aggressive Environments","volume":"234","author":"Ghassemi","year":"2020","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ohama, Y. (1995). Handbook of Polymer-Modified Concrete and Mortars: Properties and Process Technology, William Andrew.","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-081551373-5.50013-1"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Coffetti, D., Crotti, E., Gazzaniga, G., Gottardo, R., Pastore, T., and Coppola, L. (2021). Protection of Concrete Structures: Performance Analysis of Different Commercial Products and Systems. Materials, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/ma14133719"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107085","DOI":"10.1016\/j.porgcoat.2022.107085","article-title":"Stress and Embrittlement in Organic Coatings during General Weathering Exposure: A Review","volume":"172","author":"Croll","year":"2022","journal-title":"Prog. Org. Coat."},{"key":"ref_29","first-page":"143","article-title":"Effect of Curing Regime on Polymer-Cement Concrete Properties","volume":"66","author":"Woyciechowski","year":"2020","journal-title":"Arch. Civ. Eng."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2092","DOI":"10.1039\/D3SU00482A","article-title":"Surface Treatments on Concrete: An Overview on Organic, Inorganic and Nano-Based Coatings and an Outlook about Surface Modification by Rare-Earth Oxides","volume":"2","author":"Thissen","year":"2024","journal-title":"RSC Sustain."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2063","DOI":"10.1016\/j.corsci.2004.10.001","article-title":"Electrochemical Injection of Organic Corrosion Inhibitors into Concrete","volume":"47","author":"Sawada","year":"2005","journal-title":"Corros. Sci."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"86","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcis.2019.01.014","article-title":"Inexpensive and Non-Fluorinated Superhydrophobic Concrete Coating for Anti-Icing and Anti-Corrosion","volume":"541","author":"Song","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Colloid Interface Sci."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"148270","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2021.148270","article-title":"A Novel Granular Sludge-Based and Highly Corrosion-Resistant Bio-Concrete in Sewers","volume":"791","author":"Song","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"705","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jobe.2018.08.001","article-title":"Acid Resistance and Corrosion Protection Potential of Concrete Prepared with Alkali Aluminosilicate Cement","volume":"20","author":"Matalkah","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Build. Eng."},{"key":"ref_35","first-page":"38","article-title":"Geopolimery w Budownictwie","volume":"18","year":"2013","journal-title":"Izolacje"},{"key":"ref_36","unstructured":"Viswanath, P. (2007). Development of Polymer Cement Composites. [Ph.D. Thesis, Cochin University of Science and Technology]."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"123877","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2021.123877","article-title":"Investigation on Fundamental Properties and Chemical Characterization of Water-Soluble Epoxy Resin Modified Cement Grout","volume":"299","author":"Wang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_38","unstructured":"(2002). Mixing Water for Concrete\u2014Specification for Sampling, Testing and Assessing the Suitability of Water, Including Water Recovered from Processes in the Concrete Industry, as Mixing Water for Concrete (Standard No. EN 1008:2002)."},{"key":"ref_39","unstructured":"\u015aci\u015blewski, Z. (1999). Ochrona Konstrukcji \u017belbetowych, Arkady."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"421","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1008309320957","article-title":"A New Test Procedure for Biogenic Sulfuric Acid Corrosion of Concrete","volume":"10","author":"Vincke","year":"1999","journal-title":"Biodegradation"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"379","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2005.08.007","article-title":"Properties of Polymer-Modified Mortars Using Epoxy and Acrylic Emulsions","volume":"21","author":"Aggarwal","year":"2007","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"184","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2016.08.050","article-title":"Fundamental Properties of Epoxy-Resin-Modified Cement Grouts","volume":"125","author":"Anagnostopoulos","year":"2016","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"411","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2010.02.035","article-title":"Cement Paste\u2013Epoxy Adhesive Interactions and Failure Mechanisms","volume":"25","author":"Djouani","year":"2011","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"125128","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2021.125128","article-title":"Structural-to-Interfacial Fracture Transition along Epoxy-Coated Hydrating Cement Paste","volume":"310","author":"Gujar","year":"2021","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"831","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2018.02.096","article-title":"Study on the Effect of Waterborne Epoxy Resins on the Performance and Microstructure of Cement Paste","volume":"167","author":"Pang","year":"2018","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"124045","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2021.124045","article-title":"Investigation of the Effect of Waterborne Epoxy Resins on the Hydration Kinetics and Performance of Cement Blends","volume":"301","author":"Li","year":"2021","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"171231","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2024.171231","article-title":"Bio-Corrosion in Concrete Sewer Systems: Mechanisms and Mitigation Strategies","volume":"921","author":"Pramanik","year":"2024","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"52","DOI":"10.1016\/j.watres.2016.01.029","article-title":"Predicting Concrete Corrosion of Sewers Using Artificial Neural Network","volume":"92","author":"Jiang","year":"2016","journal-title":"Water Res."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"751","DOI":"10.1061\/(ASCE)0733-9372(1991)117:6(751)","article-title":"Microbial Ecology of Crown Corrosion in Sewers","volume":"117","author":"Islander","year":"1991","journal-title":"J. Environ. Eng."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"47","DOI":"10.1016\/S0958-9465(00)00039-1","article-title":"Resistance to Biogenic Sulphuric Acid Corrosion of Polymer-Modified Mortars","volume":"23","author":"Beeldens","year":"2001","journal-title":"Cem. Concr. Compos."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jabbour, M., Omikrine Metalssi, O., Quiertant, M., and Baroghel-Bouny, V. (2022). A Critical Review of Existing Test-Methods for External Sulfate Attack. Materials, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/ma15217554"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Omikrine Metalssi, O., Quiertant, M., Jabbour, M., and Baroghel-Bouny, V. (2024). Effect of Exposure Conditions on Mortar Subjected to an External Sulfate Attack. Materials, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/ma17133198"}],"container-title":["Materials"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1996-1944\/19\/2\/364\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,16]],"date-time":"2026-01-16T13:30:12Z","timestamp":1768570212000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1996-1944\/19\/2\/364"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,16]]},"references-count":52,"journal-issue":{"issue":"2","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,1]]}},"alternative-id":["ma19020364"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ma19020364","relation":{},"ISSN":["1996-1944"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1996-1944","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,16]]}}}