{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,17]],"date-time":"2026-10-17T16:59:35Z","timestamp":1792256375564,"version":"4.4.0"},"reference-count":43,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,2]],"date-time":"2026-02-02T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1769990400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Ministry of Science, Technological Development and Innovation of the Republic of Serbia","award":["451-03-137\/2025-03\/200129"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["451-03-137\/2025-03\/200129"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Materials"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The aim was to evaluate the interface zone between glass hybrid (GH), high-viscosity (HV), and resin-modified (RM) glass-ionomer cements (GIC) and sound (SD) and artificially created caries-affected (ACAD) primary dentin. Occlusal cavities were prepared in 120 extracted primary molars and randomly assigned to SD or ACAD. Samples were restored with GH (Equia Forte HT-EF), HV-GIC (Equia Fill-E; Ketac Molar-KM), or RM-GIC (Fuji-II LC-FII; Photac Fill-PF) and exposed to thermal aging. Microleakage (methylene-blue) was analyzed using an optical digital microscope. The interface between dental tissues and restorative materials was analyzed using a scanning electron (SE) microscope. SE microphotographs were manually annotated for intimate contact and cracks\/gaps at the material-enamel\/dentin interface and analyzed using a custom Python-based algorithm to quantify the respective percentages. No microleakage was noted only in the SD group for EF (50%), FII (42%), and E (33%). All materials showed higher microleakage in ACAD than SD (p &lt; 0.05). No continuous intimate contact between restorative material and dental tissues was observed along the entire interface. The mean proportion of intimate contact between the material and SD was EF (76%) &gt; KM (55%) &gt; E (38%) &gt; FII (7%) &gt; PF (4%), and EF (32%) &gt; KM (24%) &gt; E (16%) &gt; FII (15%) &gt; PF (0%) for ACAD (p &lt; 0.05). Caries-induced demineralization affects the quality of the material\u2013dentin interface. GH are likely to provide better sealing compared to the previous generations of GI materials.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ma19030568","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,2]],"date-time":"2026-02-02T16:12:37Z","timestamp":1770048757000},"page":"568","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["Characteristics of Interface Zone Between Glass-Based Restorative Materials and Sound and Caries-Affected Primary Dentine"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"19","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0001-2670-1142","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jelena","family":"Vulovic","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Dental Medicine, University of Belgrade, Dr Subotica 8, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Vukasin","family":"Kosutic","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Dental Medicine, University of Belgrade, Dr Subotica 8, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4092-9733","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sanja","family":"Kojic","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Power, Electronics and Telecommunication, Faculty of Technical Sciences, University of Novi Sad, Trg Dositeja Obradovica 6, 21000 Novi Sad, Serbia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9196-4953","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Lazar","family":"Milic","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Power, Electronics and Telecommunication, Faculty of Technical Sciences, University of Novi Sad, Trg Dositeja Obradovica 6, 21000 Novi Sad, Serbia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5397-9361","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jovana","family":"Kuzmanovic Pficer","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department for Medical Statistics and Informatics, School of Dental Medicine, University of Belgrade, Dr Subotica 1, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3575-3921","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Bojan","family":"Petrovic","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Dentistry Clinic of Vojvodina, Faculty of Medicine, University of Novi Sad, Hajduk Veljkova 3, 21000 Novi Sad, Serbia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Aleksandar","family":"Racic","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Dental Medicine, University of Belgrade, Dr Subotica 8, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0006-2727-3318","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Marko","family":"Zivkovic","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Dental Medicine, University of Belgrade, Dr Subotica 8, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8474-1567","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Tamara","family":"Peric","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Clinic of Pediatric and Preventive Dentistry, School of Dental Medicine, University of Belgrade, Dr Subotica 11, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,2]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"391","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-263X.2007.00872.x","article-title":"Dental fear\/anxiety and dental behaviour management problems in children and adolescents: A review of prevalence and concomitant psychological factors","volume":"17","author":"Klingberg","year":"2007","journal-title":"Int. J. Paediatr. Dent."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"86","DOI":"10.1038\/sj.ebd.6401328","article-title":"Glass ionomer or composite resin for primary molars","volume":"19","author":"Jones","year":"2018","journal-title":"Evid. Based Dent."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jdent.2018.04.004","article-title":"Clinical performance of glass ionomer cement and composite resin in Class II restorations in primary teeth: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"73","author":"Dias","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Dent."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2719","DOI":"10.1039\/D3MA00406F","article-title":"Modifications of polyalkenoic acid and its effect on glass ionomer cement","volume":"5","author":"Saraswathy","year":"2024","journal-title":"Mater. Adv."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"306","DOI":"10.1159\/000508899","article-title":"How to intervene in the caries process: Dentin caries in primary teeth","volume":"54","author":"Abudrya","year":"2020","journal-title":"Caries Res."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Peri\u0107, T., Markovi\u0107, E., Markovi\u0107, D., and Petrovi\u0107, B. (2021). Meta-analysis of in vitro bonding of glass-ionomer restorative materials to primary teeth. Materials, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/ma14143915"},{"key":"ref_7","first-page":"370","article-title":"Survival of adhesive restorations for primary molars: A systematic review and meta-analysis of clinical trials","volume":"38","author":"Santos","year":"2016","journal-title":"Pediatr. Dent."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fran\u00e7ois, P., Fouquet, V., Attal, J.-P., and Dursun, E. (2020). Commercially available fluoride-releasing restorative materials: A review and a proposal for classification. Materials, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/ma13102313"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"307","DOI":"10.2341\/16-365-L","article-title":"Viscoelastic properties of contemporary bulk-fill restoratives: A dynamic-mechanical analysis","volume":"43","author":"Ong","year":"2018","journal-title":"Oper. Dent."},{"key":"ref_10","first-page":"235","article-title":"Clinical performance of a glass-hybrid system compared with a resin composite in the posterior region: Results of a 2-year multicenter study","volume":"22","author":"Baraba","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Adhes. Dent."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"154","DOI":"10.1016\/j.prosdent.2019.03.012","article-title":"Comparative evaluation of the physical properties of a reinforced glass ionomer dental restorative material","volume":"122","author":"Moshaverinia","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Prosthet. Dent."},{"key":"ref_12","first-page":"63","article-title":"Two layers of carious dentin: Diagnosis and treatment","volume":"4","author":"Fusayama","year":"1979","journal-title":"Oper. Dent."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"58","DOI":"10.1177\/0022034516639271","article-title":"Managing carious lesions: Consensus recommendations on carious tissue removal","volume":"28","author":"Schwendicke","year":"2016","journal-title":"Adv. Dent. Res."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1989","DOI":"10.1007\/s10439-010-9969-6","article-title":"Adhesive\/dentin interface: The weak link in the composite restoration","volume":"38","author":"Spencer","year":"2010","journal-title":"Ann. Biomed. Eng."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1094","DOI":"10.1016\/j.dental.2011.06.009","article-title":"Analysis of interfacial fracture in dental restorations","volume":"27","author":"Kotousov","year":"2011","journal-title":"Dent. Mater."},{"key":"ref_16","first-page":"105","article-title":"The influence of various conditioner agents on the interdiffusion zone and microleakage of a high-viscosity glass ionomer cement in primary teeth","volume":"30","author":"Yilmaz","year":"2005","journal-title":"Oper. Dent."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"138","DOI":"10.4012\/dmj.2012-243","article-title":"Mineral density, morphology and bond strength of natural versus artificial caries-affected dentin","volume":"32","author":"Joves","year":"2013","journal-title":"Dent. Mater. J."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"281","DOI":"10.1159\/000016603","article-title":"Effect of tooth-bound fluoride on enamel demineralization\/remineralization in vitro","volume":"34","author":"Takagi","year":"2000","journal-title":"Caries Res."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"89","DOI":"10.1016\/S0300-5712(98)00037-2","article-title":"Thermal cycling procedures for laboratory testing of dental restorations","volume":"27","author":"Gale","year":"1999","journal-title":"J. Dent."},{"key":"ref_20","first-page":"1755","article-title":"Microleakage evaluation of dental restoratives in deciduous and young permanent immature teeth","volume":"24","author":"Gjorgievska","year":"2008","journal-title":"Acta Stomatol. Naissi"},{"key":"ref_21","first-page":"183","article-title":"Comparison of micro-leakage from resin-modified glass ionomer restorations in cavities prepared by Er:YAG laser and conventional method in primary teeth","volume":"5","author":"Bahrololoomi","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Lasers Med. Sci."},{"key":"ref_22","first-page":"395","article-title":"Bond strength of glass-hybrid and glass-ionomer materials to sound and caries-affected primary dentine","volume":"58","author":"Peric","year":"2025","journal-title":"Mater. Technol."},{"key":"ref_23","unstructured":"Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical Power Analysis for the Behavioral Sciences, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. [2nd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"949","DOI":"10.1111\/iej.13128","article-title":"Management of deep caries and the exposed pulp","volume":"52","author":"Simon","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int. Endod. J."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"49","DOI":"10.1177\/0022034516639276","article-title":"Managing carious lesions: Consensus recommendations on terminology","volume":"28","author":"Innes","year":"2016","journal-title":"Adv. Dent. Res."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"125","DOI":"10.1111\/ipd.12167","article-title":"Effect of sealing infected dentin with glass ionomer cement on the abundance and localization of MMP-2, MMP-8, and MMP-9 in young permanent molars in vivo","volume":"26","author":"Kuhn","year":"2016","journal-title":"Int. J. Paediatr. Dent."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sidhu, S.K., and Nicholson, J.W. (2016). A review of glass-ionomer cements for clinical dentistry. J. Funct. Biomater., 7.","DOI":"10.3390\/jfb7030016"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"E266","DOI":"10.2341\/17-381-L","article-title":"Linear coefficient of thermal expansion evaluation of glass ionomer and resin-modified glass ionomer restorative materials","volume":"43","author":"Brewster","year":"2018","journal-title":"Oper. Dent."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"241","DOI":"10.4103\/ccd.ccd_318_20","article-title":"Comparative evaluation of marginal integrity of three esthetic restorative materials: An in vitro study","volume":"12","author":"Singh","year":"2021","journal-title":"Contemp. Clin. Dent."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"259","DOI":"10.1111\/ger.12520","article-title":"The effect of dentin age on the microshear bond strength and microleakage of glass-ionomer cements","volume":"38","author":"Sakoolnamarka","year":"2021","journal-title":"Gerodontology"},{"key":"ref_31","first-page":"320","article-title":"The bonding of glass-ionomer cements to caries-affected primary tooth dentin","volume":"35","author":"Alves","year":"2013","journal-title":"Pediatr. Dent."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jmbbm.2013.07.003","article-title":"A comparison of resin-modified glass-ionomer and resin composite polymerisation shrinkage stress in a wet environment","volume":"29","author":"Cheetham","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Mech. Behav. Biomed. Mater."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15","DOI":"10.1007\/BF03262773","article-title":"Nanoleakage related to bond strength in RM-GIC and adhesive restorations","volume":"12","author":"Marquezan","year":"2011","journal-title":"Eur. Arch. Paediatr. Dent."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1063","DOI":"10.1007\/s00784-016-1848-6","article-title":"Evaluation of cavity wall adaptation of bulk esthetic materials to restore class II cavities in primary molars","volume":"21","author":"Gaintantzopoulou","year":"2017","journal-title":"Clin. Oral Investig."},{"key":"ref_35","first-page":"7","article-title":"From Buonocore\u2019s pioneering acid-etch technique to self-adhering restoratives: A status perspective of rapidly advancing dental adhesive technology","volume":"22","author":"Yoshihara","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Adhes. Dent."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"G\u00fcrler, S., Demirel, A., and Buyuksungur, A. (2025). The evaluation of internal adaptation of glass ionomer restorations applied after the use of different cavity conditioners in primary teeth: An in vitro study. BMC Oral Health, 25.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12903-024-05339-7"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"57","DOI":"10.1007\/s40368-023-00853-8","article-title":"Effect of protective coating agents on microleakage and flexural strength of glass ionomer cement and zirconomer: An in vitro study","volume":"25","author":"Thomas","year":"2024","journal-title":"Eur. Arch. Paediatr. Dent."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"62","DOI":"10.5005\/jp-journals-10024-3020","article-title":"Influence of nanocoats on the physicomechanical properties and microleakage of bulk-fill and resin-modified glass ionomer cements: An in vitro study","volume":"22","author":"Habib","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Contemp. Dent. Pract."},{"key":"ref_39","first-page":"2244982","article-title":"Fluoride exchange by glass-ionomer dental cements and its clinical effects: A review","volume":"10","author":"Nicholson","year":"2023","journal-title":"Biomater. Investig. Dent."},{"key":"ref_40","first-page":"47","article-title":"Resistance to degradation of bonded restorations to simulated caries-affected primary dentin","volume":"23","author":"Marquezan","year":"2010","journal-title":"Am. J. Dent."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"131","DOI":"10.1590\/1807-2577.1076","article-title":"Morphological and chemical changes of dentin after applying different sterilization methods","volume":"44","author":"Carvalho","year":"2015","journal-title":"Rev. Odontol. UNESP"},{"key":"ref_42","first-page":"189","article-title":"Sterilization of human teeth: Its effect on permeability and bond strength","volume":"6","author":"Pashley","year":"1993","journal-title":"Am. J. Dent."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"26","DOI":"10.4103\/0972-0707.53338","article-title":"Comparative analysis of the effect of autoclaving and 10% formalin storage on extracted teeth: A microleakage evaluation","volume":"12","author":"Attam","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Conserv. Dent."}],"container-title":["Materials"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1996-1944\/19\/3\/568\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,11]],"date-time":"2026-02-11T09:25:56Z","timestamp":1770801956000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1996-1944\/19\/3\/568"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,2]]},"references-count":43,"journal-issue":{"issue":"3","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,2]]}},"alternative-id":["ma19030568"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ma19030568","relation":{},"ISSN":["1996-1944"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1996-1944","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,2]]}}}