{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,29]],"date-time":"2026-09-29T10:12:13Z","timestamp":1790676733686,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":70,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,5]],"date-time":"2026-02-05T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1770249600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["12372180"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["12372180"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["12072078"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["12072078"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"name":"Postdoctoral Fellowship Program of CPSF","award":["GZC20252117"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["GZC20252117"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Materials"],"abstract":"<jats:p>This article proposes a novel preparation method for seawater-based low-alkalinity activated phosphogypsum (PG) cement, aimed at enhancing the performance of multi-waste binder systems using the highly ionic environment of seawater while addressing the cost and alkalinity issues associated with traditional high-alkalinity activators. The effects of partial replacement of ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBS) with PG (0\u201315%) and fly ash (FA, 20\u201350%) on the setting time, rheological properties, microstructure, and compressive strength of seawater-based slurries were investigated. Compared to the control group (pure slag), the samples with a synergistic ratio of 5% PG and 35% FA had a mean compressive strength exceeding 60 MPa at 28 days, comparable to that of the control group, with a significant improvement in flowability. The results demonstrate that the proposed preparation method alters the hydration kinetics of alkali-activated GGBS cement and significantly improves the early and later compressive strength of hydrated samples. In the early hydration phase, seawater ions effectively promoted the rapid nucleation and growth of ettringite (AFt) crystals. The low-alkalinity composite activator induced the formation of a substantial amount of C-(A)-S-H gel. In the later stages of hydration, needle-like AFt crystals intertwined with the gel matrix, further densifying the microstructure. The enhancement of the polymer\u2019s performance is primarily attributable to the key \u201csynergistic enhancement effect\u201d between seawater ions and the low-alkalinity environment. This interaction optimizes the formation pathways of key hydration products and refines the pore structure, providing a solid theoretical foundation for the low-carbon, high-efficiency utilization of PG in marine engineering materials.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ma19030617","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,5]],"date-time":"2026-02-05T16:30:47Z","timestamp":1770309047000},"page":"617","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":3,"title":["Hydration Mechanism and Microstructure Evolution of Seawater-Based Low-Alkalinity Activated Phosphogypsum Cement"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"19","author":[{"given":"Weisen","family":"Liu","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Civil and Transportation Engineering, Guangdong University of Technology, Guangzhou 510006, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yanlin","family":"Zhen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Civil and Transportation Engineering, Guangdong University of Technology, Guangzhou 510006, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0007-9823-7469","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yuan","family":"Feng","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Civil and Transportation Engineering, Guangdong University of Technology, Guangzhou 510006, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8266-7121","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Zhongyu","family":"Lu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Civil and Transportation Engineering, Guangdong University of Technology, Guangzhou 510006, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jianhe","family":"Xie","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Civil and Transportation Engineering, Guangdong University of Technology, Guangzhou 510006, China"},{"name":"School of Intelligent Engineering, Guangdong AIB Polytechnic, Guangzhou 510507, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,5]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cemconres.2018.03.015","article-title":"Eco-efficient cements: Potential economically viable solutions for a low-CO2 cement-based materials industry","volume":"114","author":"Scrivener","year":"2018","journal-title":"Cem. 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