{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,1]],"date-time":"2026-05-01T10:52:16Z","timestamp":1777632736900,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":107,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"9","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,26]],"date-time":"2026-04-26T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1777161600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100021171","name":"GuangDong Basic and Applied Basic Research Foundation","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["2024A1515110073"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2024A1515110073"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100021171","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"name":"Youth S&T Talent Support Programme of Guangdong Provincial Association for Science and Technology","award":["SKXRC2025405"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["SKXRC2025405"]}]},{"name":"Youth S&T Talent Support Programme of Guangdong Provincial Association for Science and Technology","award":["SKXRC2025406"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["SKXRC2025406"]}]},{"name":"Zhanjiang Unsubsidized Science and Technology Tackling Program Projects","award":["2024B01057"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2024B01057"]}]},{"name":"2021 Provincial First-Class Major\u2014Building Environment and Energy Engineering","award":["120601-010306072202"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["120601-010306072202"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Materials"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Direct ocean carbon capture (DOC) has emerged as a promising strategy for mitigating atmospheric CO2 levels and addressing ocean acidification. Unlike direct air carbon capture methods, DOC leverages the ocean\u2019s vast carbon storage capacity, offering a scalable and efficient route for carbon dioxide removal. This systematic comparative review categorizes existing DOC methods into three types: (1) biological carbon capture, which relies on photosynthesis by microalgae and marine microorganisms; (2) electrochemical carbon capture, which utilizes water electrolysis to generate H+ and OH\u2212 ions for pH-driven CO2 removal; and (3) physical carbon capture, which employs hollow fiber membranes to directly separate CO2 from seawater. For each technology, we evaluate efficiency, energy consumption, cost, technology readiness level (TRL), scalability, and major challenges. By integrating recent pilot data and providing a critical assessment, this review offers a roadmap for future research in direct seawater CO2 capture. The comparative analysis reveals that electrochemical methods achieve the highest efficiency (60\u201385%) but face membrane fouling and electrode degradation challenges, while biological methods offer low-energy operation but suffer from slow kinetics and high harvesting costs, and membrane-based methods provide high removal rates (up to 94%) but require improved fouling resistance.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ma19091763","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,28]],"date-time":"2026-04-28T07:49:36Z","timestamp":1777362576000},"page":"1763","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["A Comparative Review of Biological, Electrochemical, and Membrane-Based Methods for Direct Ocean Carbon Capture"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"19","author":[{"given":"Zhe","family":"Wang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Ocean Engineering and Energy, Guangdong Ocean University, Zhanjiang 524088, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Jiayu","family":"Zheng","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Ocean Engineering and Energy, Guangdong Ocean University, Zhanjiang 524088, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Siyuan","family":"Guo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Ocean Engineering and Energy, Guangdong Ocean University, Zhanjiang 524088, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Ting","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Ocean Engineering and Energy, Guangdong Ocean University, Zhanjiang 524088, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Zhen","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Mechanical Engineering, Xi\u2019an Jiaotong University, Xi\u2019an 710049, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Hang","family":"Cao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Environmental Protection Key Laboratory of Eco-Industry, Northeastern University, Shenyang 110819, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1700-297X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Gang Kevin","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Chemical Engineering, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC 3010, Australia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7154-3948","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Shupeng","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Ocean Engineering and Energy, Guangdong Ocean University, Zhanjiang 524088, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Yi","family":"Yang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Ocean Engineering and Energy, Guangdong Ocean University, Zhanjiang 524088, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,26]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102693","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jksus.2023.102693","article-title":"Climate change due to increasing concentration of carbon dioxide and its impacts on environment in 21st century; a mini review","volume":"35","author":"Kabir","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. 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