{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,8]],"date-time":"2026-05-08T05:10:15Z","timestamp":1778217015412,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":79,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"9","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,27]],"date-time":"2026-04-27T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1777248000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100004610","name":"Science and Technology Support Program of Jiangsu Province","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["BY20231142"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["BY20231142"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100004610","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Materials"],"abstract":"<jats:p>To enhance the engineering performance of fine-grained composite soils with unbalanced particle gradation, high plasticity, and poor water stability, a synergistic stabilization strategy combining particle structure regulation and microbially induced calcium carbonate precipitation (MICP) was proposed. The particle size distribution and fundamental engineering properties of a titanium gypsum\u2013clay (TSC) composite soil were first optimized through systematic single-factor blending tests. The results indicate that a TS:C ratio of 60:40 significantly improved gradation characteristics, reduced plasticity, and enhanced both compaction behavior and load-bearing capacity. Based on the optimized gradation framework, MICP treatment was subsequently introduced to further enhance water stability. The effects of key parameters, particularly the type of calcium source, on the evolution of water stability were systematically investigated. X-ray diffraction (XRD) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) were employed to elucidate the underlying reinforcement mechanisms. The results demonstrate that the water stability coefficient increased markedly from 0.35 to 0.83 following MICP treatment, while strength degradation under water immersion was effectively mitigated. Microscopic observations reveal that microbially precipitated calcite fills pore spaces and forms a continuous cementation network via particle bridging and interfacial bonding, leading to an approximately 32% reduction in porosity. Overall, the proposed synergistic strategy offers an effective and sustainable approach for improving the water stability and structural integrity of complex fine-grained composite soils.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ma19091775","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,28]],"date-time":"2026-04-28T07:49:36Z","timestamp":1777362576000},"page":"1775","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Solidification Performance and Mechanism of TSC Composite Soil Based on Microbially Induced Mineralization"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"19","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0008-9987-7721","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Haowei","family":"Ding","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Civil Engineering and Architecture, Jiangsu University of Science and Technology, Zhenjiang 212000, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1097-9027","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Qiwei","family":"Zhan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Civil Engineering and Architecture, Jiangsu University of Science and Technology, Zhenjiang 212000, China"},{"name":"Zhenjiang Key Laboratory of Infrastructure Renewal and Resilience Enhancement, Zhenjiang 212000, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Haitao","family":"Hu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Transportation, Southeast University, Nanjing 211189, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Yiming","family":"Xiong","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Civil Engineering and Architecture, Jiangsu University of Science and Technology, Zhenjiang 212000, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,27]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"04017039","DOI":"10.1061\/(ASCE)GT.1943-5606.0001705","article-title":"Revised soil classification system for coarse-fine mixtures","volume":"143","author":"Park","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wu, X.J., Dang, F.N., and Li, J.Y. (2025). The Parameter of Soil Structural Properties and Their Relationship to Grain Size, Density, and Moisture Content. Appl. Sci., 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/app15041872"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"154","DOI":"10.1007\/s10064-023-03175-7","article-title":"Mechanical deterioration effect and damage evolution characteristics of soft sandstone with different water-immersed heights under uniaxial compression","volume":"82","author":"Liu","year":"2023","journal-title":"Bull. Eng. Geol. Environ."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"215","DOI":"10.3141\/1652-28","article-title":"Effectiveness of Portland cement and lime in stabilizing clay soils","volume":"1652","author":"Prusinski","year":"1999","journal-title":"Transp. Res. Rec."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"67","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2015.11.039","article-title":"Influence of curing temperature on autogenous shrinkage and cracking resistance of high-performance concrete at an early age","volume":"103","author":"Shen","year":"2016","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_6","unstructured":"Vigano, L. (2026, February 11). Sustainability in TiO2 Recovery and Application for Environmental Remediation. Available online: https:\/\/boa.unimib.it\/handle\/10281\/541701."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"124685","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2021.124685","article-title":"A state-of-the-art review of polymers used in soil stabilization","volume":"305","author":"Huang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"04019045","DOI":"10.1061\/(ASCE)GT.1943-5606.0002079","article-title":"Microscale visualization of microbial-induced calcium carbonate precipitation processes","volume":"145","author":"Wang","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liu, S., Dong, C., Zhu, Y., Wang, Z., Li, Y., and Feng, G. (2025). Recent Developments on Biomineralization for Erosion Control. Appl. Sci., 15.","DOI":"10.20944\/preprints202505.1387.v1"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"408","DOI":"10.1007\/s10706-025-03392-9","article-title":"Erosion Resistance Mechanisms in MICP-Treated Sandy Soil: Experimental Evaluation","volume":"43","author":"Liang","year":"2025","journal-title":"Geotech. Geol. Eng."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"122237","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jece.2026.122237","article-title":"Enzyme-induced carbonate precipitation process for soil improvement using expired soybean seeds as urease source","volume":"14","author":"Rosa","year":"2026","journal-title":"J. Environ. Chem. Eng."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1125","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2017.12.137","article-title":"Soil and land management in a circular economy","volume":"624","author":"Breure","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"64","DOI":"10.1016\/j.psep.2023.11.008","article-title":"Production, characterisation, and application of titanium gypsum: A review","volume":"181","author":"Li","year":"2024","journal-title":"Process Saf. Environ. Prot."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"124456","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2021.124456","article-title":"Engineering properties of expansive soil stabilized by physically amended titanium gypsum","volume":"303","author":"Zha","year":"2021","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"135358","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2024.135358","article-title":"Investigation of geotechnical and microstructure characteristics of gypsum soil using ground granulated blast-furnace slag (GGBS), fly ash, and lime","volume":"418","author":"Parhizkar","year":"2024","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_16","first-page":"e02536","article-title":"Application of titanium gypsum as raw materials in cement-based self-leveling mortars","volume":"19","author":"Wang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Case Stud. Constr. Mater."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"142999","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclepro.2024.142999","article-title":"Performance and mechanism of sand stabilization via microbial-induced CaCO3 precipitation using phosphogypsum","volume":"468","author":"Bao","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Clean. Prod."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"327","DOI":"10.1680\/jenge.23.00082","article-title":"Enhancing clay soil reinforcement using MICP-BIN method with biochar-induced nucleation","volume":"12","author":"Wang","year":"2025","journal-title":"Environ. Geotech."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chen, J., Liu, B., Zhong, M., Jing, C., and Guo, B. (2022). Research status and development of microbial induced calcium carbonate mineralization technology. PLoS ONE, 17.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0271761"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1723","DOI":"10.3382\/ps.0701723","article-title":"The effect of calcium sulfate (gypsum) in combination with different sources and forms of calcium carbonate on acid-base balance and eggshell quality","volume":"70","author":"Keshavarz","year":"1991","journal-title":"Poult. Sci."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"251","DOI":"10.1016\/0375-6742(92)90052-A","article-title":"X-ray fluorescence spectrometry","volume":"44","author":"Potts","year":"1992","journal-title":"J. Geochem. Explor."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"737","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2019.04.035","article-title":"Investigation of the crack healing performance in mortar using microbially induced calcium carbonate precipitation (MICP) method","volume":"212","author":"Jongvivatsakul","year":"2019","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"114410","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jobe.2025.114410","article-title":"Optimization of Calcium Sources for Enhanced Performance of Microbially-induced Calcium Carbonate Precipitation (MICP)-Modified Recycled Aggregate Concrete","volume":"115","author":"Wang","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Build. Eng."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"135884","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhazmat.2024.135884","article-title":"Immobilizing lead in aqueous solution and loess soil using microbially induced carbonate\/phosphate precipitation (MICP\/MIPP) under harsh pH environments","volume":"480","author":"Xue","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Hazard. Mater."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2239","DOI":"10.1007\/s11440-022-01664-9","article-title":"Microscale investigations of temperature-dependent microbially induced carbonate precipitation (MICP) in the temperature range 4\u201350 C","volume":"18","author":"Wang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Acta Geotech."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Murugan, R., Suraishkumar, G.K., Mukherjee, A., and Dhami, N.K. (2021). Insights into the influence of cell concentration in design and development of microbially induced calcium carbonate precipitation (MICP) process. PLoS ONE, 16.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0254536"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"63","DOI":"10.1144\/GSL.SP.2004.232.01.08","article-title":"Particle size analysis by laser diffraction","volume":"232","author":"Blott","year":"2004","journal-title":"Geol. Soc. Lond. Spec. Publ."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"295","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2389.1976.tb01999.x","article-title":"Plastic limit determination using a drop-cone penetrometer","volume":"27","author":"Campbell","year":"1976","journal-title":"J. Soil Sci."},{"key":"ref_29","unstructured":"Connelly, J., Jensen, W., and Harmon, P. (2026, March 01). Proctor Compaction Testing. Available online: https:\/\/digitalcommons.unl.edu\/cgi\/viewcontent.cgi?article=1050&context=ndor."},{"key":"ref_30","first-page":"25","article-title":"Relating the field and laboratory California bearing ratio (Cbr) of stabilised road base","volume":"23","author":"Chan","year":"2022","journal-title":"GEOMATE J."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhao, S., Zheng, J., and Yang, J. (2022). Stability analysis of embankment slope considering water absorption and softening of subgrade expansive soil. Water, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/w14213528"},{"key":"ref_32","first-page":"370","article-title":"Synergistic corrosion inhibition mechanism of MgAl-LDHs and microorganisms: Dual protection for steel reinforcement in cracked concrete","volume":"15","author":"He","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Sustain. Cem.-Based Mater."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"141098","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2025.141098","article-title":"Exploring the potential application of microbial mineralization to achieve self-healing of cracks in cement-based sealing materials","volume":"474","author":"Pang","year":"2025","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111432","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jobe.2024.111432","article-title":"Study on the intelligent protection of cement-based materials through the synergistic action of lactate intercalated double metal hydroxides and microorganisms","volume":"98","author":"He","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Build. Eng."},{"key":"ref_35","first-page":"229","article-title":"Properties of Calcium Hydroxyapatite Formed Using Waste Oyster Shell and Ammonium Dihydrogen Phosphate","volume":"2","author":"Sam","year":"2022","journal-title":"Enhanc. Knowl. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"116031","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fuel.2019.116031","article-title":"Adsorption pore structure and its fractal characteristics of coals by N2 adsorption\/desorption and FESEM image analyses","volume":"257","author":"Li","year":"2019","journal-title":"Fuel"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101","DOI":"10.1016\/S0032-5910(97)03233-6","article-title":"Characterization of particle size based on fine and coarse fractions","volume":"93","author":"Djamarani","year":"1997","journal-title":"Powder Technol."},{"key":"ref_38","unstructured":"Merkus, H.G. (2009). Particle size, size distributions and shape. Particle Size Measurements: Fundamentals, Practice, Quality, Springer."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"383","DOI":"10.2136\/sssabookser5.1.2ed.c15","article-title":"Particle-size analysis","volume":"Volume 5","author":"Gee","year":"1986","journal-title":"Methods of Soil Analysis: Part 1 Physical and Mineralogical Methods"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"175","DOI":"10.1016\/j.proeps.2012.01.031","article-title":"Soil liquid limit and plastic limit treating system based on analytic method","volume":"5","author":"Li","year":"2012","journal-title":"Procedia Earth Planet. Sci."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Verma, G., and Kumar, B. (2021). Statistical analysis of factors influencing the liquid and plastic limits of fine-grained soil mixtures. Advances in Sustainable Construction Materials: Select Proceedings of ASCM 2020, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-981-33-4590-4_31"},{"key":"ref_42","unstructured":"Matalucci, R.V. (2026, February 25). Laboratory Experiments in the Stabilization of Clay with Gypsum. Available online: https:\/\/openresearch.okstate.edu\/server\/api\/core\/bitstreams\/fb247a2d-5b04-439f-8e33-b2424a6a4ab7\/content."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"43","DOI":"10.1680\/jgere.23.00038","article-title":"Theory of liquid and plastic limits for fine soils, methods of determination and outlook","volume":"11","year":"2024","journal-title":"Geotech. Res."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, Y., Li, K., Li, J., and Tang, S. (2021). Influence of soil particle size on the engineering properties and microstructure of a red clay. Appl. Sci., 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/app112210887"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"217","DOI":"10.1007\/s10706-018-0604-x","article-title":"Correlation of California bearing ratio (CBR) value with soil properties of road subgrade soil","volume":"37","author":"Katte","year":"2019","journal-title":"Geotech. Geol. Eng."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"29","DOI":"10.1016\/j.trgeo.2018.02.004","article-title":"Influence of clay mineralogy on the relationship of CBR of fine-grained soils with their index and engineering properties","volume":"15","author":"Nagaraj","year":"2018","journal-title":"Transp. Geotech."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"121","DOI":"10.1007\/s10035-022-01280-0","article-title":"Research and application on large-scale coarse-grained soil filling characteristics and gradation optimization","volume":"24","author":"Zhu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Granul. Matter"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1145","DOI":"10.2136\/sssaj2004.1145","article-title":"Relationship between clay content, clay type, and shrinkage properties of soil samples","volume":"68","author":"Boivin","year":"2004","journal-title":"Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"94","DOI":"10.1007\/s12665-020-8840-9","article-title":"Factors affecting the performance of microbial-induced carbonate precipitation (MICP) treated soil: A review","volume":"79","author":"Tang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Environ. Earth Sci."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Peng, J., Cao, T., He, J., Dai, D., and Tian, Y. (2022). Improvement of coral sand with MICP using various calcium sources in sea water environment. Front. Phys., 10.","DOI":"10.3389\/fphy.2022.825409"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"61","DOI":"10.1007\/s11274-022-03499-8","article-title":"Influencing factors on ureolytic microbiologically induced calcium carbonate precipitation for biocementation","volume":"39","author":"Erdmann","year":"2023","journal-title":"World J. Microbiol. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"131286","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclepro.2022.131286","article-title":"Calcium acetate as calcium source used to biocement for improving performance and reducing ammonia emission","volume":"348","author":"Xiang","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Clean. Prod."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1680\/jgere.22.00051","article-title":"Soil bio-cementation treatment strategies: State-of-the-art review","volume":"11","author":"Omoregie","year":"2023","journal-title":"Geotech. Res."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, Y., Wang, Y., and Konstantinou, C. (ESS Open Arch., 2022). Effects of environmental temperature on the effectiveness of microbially induced carbonate precipitation, ESS Open Arch., in preprint.","DOI":"10.1002\/essoar.10510835.1"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"04023116","DOI":"10.1061\/JGGEFK.GTENG-11526","article-title":"Strength behavior of temperature-dependent MICP-treated soil","volume":"149","author":"Wang","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3259","DOI":"10.1007\/s11440-022-01759-3","article-title":"Effect of pH on soil improvement using one-phase-low-pH MICP or EICP biocementation method","volume":"18","author":"Lai","year":"2023","journal-title":"Acta Geotech."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"121729","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2020.121729","article-title":"Experimental study to improve the mechanical properties of iron tailings sand by using MICP at low pH","volume":"273","author":"Lai","year":"2021","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"229","DOI":"10.1007\/s12665-023-10899-y","article-title":"Microbial-induced carbonate precipitation (MICP) technology: A review on the fundamentals and engineering applications","volume":"82","author":"Zhang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Environ. Earth Sci."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7403","DOI":"10.1128\/AEM.01585-15","article-title":"Spatial patterns of carbonate biomineralization in biofilms","volume":"81","author":"Li","year":"2015","journal-title":"Appl. Environ. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"524","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chemosphere.2017.06.015","article-title":"Long-term sustainability of microbial-induced CaCO3 precipitation in aqueous media","volume":"184","author":"Gat","year":"2017","journal-title":"Chemosphere"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, D., Chen, S., and Gao, X. (2024). Numerical analysis of MICP treated sand based on bio-chemo-hydro model. Front. Bioeng. Biotechnol., 12.","DOI":"10.3389\/fbioe.2024.1380213"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e01794-22","DOI":"10.1128\/aem.01794-22","article-title":"Microbially induced calcium carbonate precipitation by Sporosarcina pasteurii: A case study in optimizing biological CaCO3 precipitation","volume":"89","author":"Carter","year":"2023","journal-title":"Appl. Environ. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_63","unstructured":"Burgos Ruiz, M. (2024). Phase Formation and Transformations in the CaSO4-H2O System: Implications for the Conservation of Plasterworks. [Ph.D. Thesis, Universidad de Granada]."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Qabany, A.A., and Soga, K. (2014). Effect of chemical treatment used in MICP on engineering properties of cemented soils. Proceedings of the Bio-and Chemo-Mechanical Processes in Geotechnical Engineering: G\u00e9otechnique Symposium in Print 2013, London, UK, 3 June 2013, ICE Publishing.","DOI":"10.1680\/bcmpge.60531.010"},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yusuf, M.O. (2023). Bond characterization in cementitious material binders using Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy. Appl. Sci., 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/app13053353"},{"key":"ref_66","first-page":"5","article-title":"The Raman study on certain sulfates","volume":"55","author":"Buzgar","year":"2009","journal-title":"Acta Chem. Iasi"},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhuravlev, Y.N., and Atuchin, V.V. (2020). Comprehensive density functional theory studies of vibrational spectra of carbonates. Nanomaterials, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/nano10112275"},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"89","DOI":"10.1590\/S0104-66322011000100011","article-title":"Precipitation of amorphous SiO2 particles and their properties","volume":"28","year":"2011","journal-title":"Braz. J. Chem. Eng."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chakkor, O. (2025). Durability and Microstructural Evaluation of Geopolymer Mortars Exposed to Sulphuric Acid Using Industrial By-Product Fillers. Polymers, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/polym17172310"},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"169143","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cej.2025.169143","article-title":"Rapid formation of CaCO3\/EPS hybrid coatings via microbially induced mineralization for corrosion-resistant steel","volume":"524","author":"Feng","year":"2025","journal-title":"Chem. Eng. J."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Decho, A.W., and Gutierrez, T. (2017). Microbial extracellular polymeric substances (EPSs) in ocean systems. Front. Microbiol., 8.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2017.00922"},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"117316","DOI":"10.1016\/j.watres.2021.117316","article-title":"Changes in molecular structure of extracellular polymeric substances (EPS) with temperature in relation to sludge macro-physical properties","volume":"201","author":"Peng","year":"2021","journal-title":"Water Res."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhuang, D., Chen, Z., and Sun, B. (2025). Thermal decomposition of calcium carbonate at multiple heating rates in different atmospheres using the techniques of TG, DTG, and DSC. Crystals, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/cryst15020108"},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"578","DOI":"10.2138\/am.2009.3021","article-title":"Thermal decomposition of calcite: Mechanisms of formation and textural evolution of CaO nanocrystals","volume":"94","author":"Luque","year":"2009","journal-title":"Am. Mineral."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107653","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jobe.2023.107653","article-title":"Effects of titanium gypsum on high calcium fly ash system: Physical and microscopic properties, hydration, and Fe transformation","volume":"78","author":"Yuan","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Build. Eng."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"197","DOI":"10.1515\/geo-2020-0145","article-title":"The significance of scanning electron microscopy (SEM) analysis on the microstructure of improved clay: An overview","volume":"13","author":"Ural","year":"2021","journal-title":"Open Geosci."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20","DOI":"10.1134\/S199507802001005X","article-title":"Processes of nanosized calcium carbonate formation by microorganisms","volume":"15","author":"Namsaraev","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nanotechnol. Russ."},{"key":"ref_78","first-page":"143","article-title":"17 The determination of pore structures from nitrogen adsorption isotherms","volume":"Volume 9","author":"Cranston","year":"1957","journal-title":"Advances in Catalysis"},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"231","DOI":"10.1016\/S0927-7757(02)00413-2","article-title":"Pore size analysis by nitrogen adsorption and thermal desorption","volume":"214","author":"Stefaniak","year":"2003","journal-title":"Colloids Surf. A Physicochem. Eng. Asp."}],"container-title":["Materials"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1996-1944\/19\/9\/1775\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,8]],"date-time":"2026-05-08T04:20:58Z","timestamp":1778214058000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1996-1944\/19\/9\/1775"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,27]]},"references-count":79,"journal-issue":{"issue":"9","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,5]]}},"alternative-id":["ma19091775"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ma19091775","relation":{},"ISSN":["1996-1944"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1996-1944","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,27]]}}}