{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,30]],"date-time":"2026-07-30T17:25:58Z","timestamp":1785432358371,"version":"3.56.0"},"reference-count":45,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"9","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,29]],"date-time":"2026-04-29T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1777420800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100007835","name":"Silesian University of Technology","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["10\/030\/RGP22\/1040"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["10\/030\/RGP22\/1040"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100007835","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"award":["10\/030\/RGP22\/1040"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["10\/030\/RGP22\/1040"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/02dyjk442","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Materials"],"abstract":"<jats:p>In this study, scanning electron microscopy (SEM) analysis is used to reveal the real microstructure of C75S steel and to compare grain morphology and deformation features with numerical predictions. A micro-scale finite element model of C75S steel is developed to investigate its tensile response in order to understand how steel actually deforms and fails at the microstructure level. Subsequently, the validated microstructural model is employed to simulate the cutting process using the finite element method, focusing on stress concentration and damage initiation at the grain and interface zones. The results demonstrate that microstructural modelling provides improved insight into deformation and fracture mechanisms compared to homogenised approaches, highlighting the critical role of cementite distribution and interfacial behaviour during tensile loading and micro-scale cutting. The cementite particle sizes in C75S steel range from approximately 0.5 to 2.0 \u00b5m, with circularity values between 0.7 and 0.95 and a volume fraction of about 10\u201312%. The proposed framework offers a robust basis for predicting the cutting performance of high-carbon steels.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ma19091836","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,29]],"date-time":"2026-04-29T15:01:18Z","timestamp":1777474878000},"page":"1836","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Impact of Ferrite\u2013Cementite Microstructure on Tensile and Cutting Behaviour of C75S Steel"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"19","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5230-3001","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jaros\u0142aw","family":"Kaczmarczyk","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Theoretical and Applied Mechanics, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Silesian University of Technology, 18A Konarskiego Street, 44-100 Gliwice, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,29]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"Graham, T.S. (2008). Cutting Tool Technology. Industrial Handbook, Springer."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"Show, M.C. (2005). Metal Cutting Principles, Oxford University Press."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Iuliana, T., Samoila, C., and Ursutiu, D. (2022). Influence of Heat and Thermochemical Treatment Parameters on C75 Steel Fatigue Resistance. Materials, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/ma15155378"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lu, Y., Wang, J., Pan, D., Han, J., Zhu, L., Diao, C., Han, J., and Jiang, Z. (2023). Optimising Two-Stage Vacuum Heat Treatment for a High-Strength Micro-Alloyed Steel in Railway Spring Clip Application: Impact on Microstructure and Mechanical Performance. Materials, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/ma16144921"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yin, R., Liu, D., Chen, J., and Wang, J. (2023). Investigation of Microstructure and Properties of Ultra-High Strength Steel in Aero-Engine Components following Heat Treatment and Deformation Processes. Metals, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/met13081353"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101","DOI":"10.1016\/0043-1648(91)90209-D","article-title":"A Study of the Abrasive Wear of Carbon Steels","volume":"148","author":"Xu","year":"1991","journal-title":"Wear"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"345","DOI":"10.1080\/14680629.2025.2492140","article-title":"Volume Stability Evaluation and Life Prediction of Steel Slag Water-Stabilised Materials","volume":"27","author":"Feng","year":"2026","journal-title":"Road Mater. Pavement Des."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5161","DOI":"10.1007\/s11665-022-06667-x","article-title":"Residual Stress and Distortion during Quench Hardening of Steels: A Review","volume":"31","author":"Samuel","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Mater. Eng. Perform."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"123","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijplas.2017.07.004","article-title":"An Analysis of Macro- and Micro-Scale Residual Stresses of Type I, II and III using FIB-DIC Micro-ring-core Milling and Crystal Plasticity FE Modelling","volume":"98","author":"Salvati","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int. J. Plast."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Leksycki, K., Feldshtein, E., and Paw\u0142owski, J. (2026). Surface Topography of Hardened Stainless Steel in Dry Finish Turning Using CBN and Cemented Carbide Inserts. Materials, 19.","DOI":"10.3390\/ma19061103"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Krugla, M., Offerman, S.E., Sietsma, J., and Hanlon, D.N. (2024). Microsegregation Influence on Austenite Formation from Ferrite and Cementite in Fe\u2013C\u2013Mn\u2013Si and Fe\u2013C\u2013Si Steels. Metals, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/met14010092"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"335","DOI":"10.3390\/met4030335","article-title":"On the Physics of Machining Titanium Alloys: Interactions between Cutting Parameters, Microstructure and Tool Wear","volume":"4","author":"Nouari","year":"2014","journal-title":"Metals"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yi, J., Wang, X., Zhu, Y., Wang, X., and Xiang, J. (2024). Deformation Control in Mesoscale Micro-Milling of Curved Thin-Walled Structures. Materials, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/ma17205071"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shao, S., Wu, Y., Fu, H., Feng, S., and Zhang, J. (2023). Numerical Investigation on the Mechanical Properties of Vault Void Lining and Steel Plate Strengthening. Materials, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/ma16020789"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kaczmarczyk, J., Kozlowska, A., Grajcar, A., and S\u0142awski, S. (2019). Modelling and Microstructural Aspects of Ultra-Thin Sheet Metal Bundle Cutting. Metals, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/met9020162"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14","DOI":"10.5604\/01.3001.0010.1554","article-title":"Numerical Simulations of Preliminary State of Stress in Bundles of Metal Sheets on the Guillotine","volume":"85","author":"Kaczmarczyk","year":"2017","journal-title":"Arch. Mater. Sci. Eng."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kaczmarczyk, J., and Grajcar, A. (2018). Numerical Simulation and Experimental Investigation of Cold-Rolled Steel Cutting. Materials, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/ma11071263"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kaczmarczyk, J. (2019). Modelling of Guillotine Cutting of a Cold-Rolled Steel Sheet. Materials, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/ma12182954"},{"key":"ref_19","first-page":"17","article-title":"Dynamically Loaded Branched and Intersecting Cracks","volume":"34","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Civ. Eng. Environ. Archit."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"65","DOI":"10.3390\/met2010065","article-title":"Crack Propagation in Honeycomb Cellular Materials: A Computational Approach","volume":"2","author":"Paggi","year":"2012","journal-title":"Metals"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"45","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cirp.2021.04.055","article-title":"Digital Image Correlation Analysis and Modelling of the Strain Rate in Metal Cutting","volume":"70","author":"Bergs","year":"2021","journal-title":"CIRP Ann."},{"key":"ref_22","unstructured":"Livermore Software Technology Corporation (2017). LS-DYNA Keyword User\u2019s Manual, Livermore Software Technology Corporation."},{"key":"ref_23","unstructured":"Belytschko, T., Liu, W.K., Moran, B., and Elkhodary, K.I. (2014). Nonlinear Finite Elements for Continua and Structure, John Wiley & Sons."},{"key":"ref_24","unstructured":"Mohammadi, S. (2003). Discontinuum Mechanics Using Finite and Discrete Elements, WIT Press."},{"key":"ref_25","unstructured":"Hughes, T.J.R. (2000). The Finite Element Method: Linear Static and Dynamic Finite Element Analysis, Dover Publications."},{"key":"ref_26","unstructured":"Zienkiewicz, O.C., and Taylor, R.L. (2000). The Finite Element Method: Solid Mechanics, Butterworth-Heinemann."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijsolstr.2016.11.005","article-title":"Micromechanical Finite Element Analysis of the Effects of Martensite Morphology on the Overall Mechanical Behavior of Dual Phase Steel","volume":"104-105","author":"Abid","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int. J. Solids Struct."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107151","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijmecsci.2022.107151","article-title":"Mechanical Behaviour and Micromechanical Modelling of Medium-Mn Steel Microstructure Evolution","volume":"220","author":"Grajcar","year":"2022","journal-title":"Int. J. Mech. Sci."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1841","DOI":"10.1007\/s00161-023-01202-2","article-title":"Modelling of Strain-Induced Martensite Formation in Advanced Medium-Mn Automotive Sheet Steel","volume":"35","author":"Kaczmarczyk","year":"2023","journal-title":"Contin. Mech. Thermodyn."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"655","DOI":"10.1007\/s00170-020-06445-w","article-title":"A Review on Micro-Milling: Recent Advances and Future Trends","volume":"112","author":"Geier","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int. J. Adv. Manuf. Technol."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"789","DOI":"10.1007\/s00170-017-0912-y","article-title":"A Review of Micro-Mechanical Cutting","volume":"94","author":"Boswell","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. J. Adv. Manuf. Technol."},{"key":"ref_32","first-page":"3","article-title":"Micro Milling Process Modeling: A Review","volume":"8","author":"Mamedov","year":"2021","journal-title":"Manuf. Rev."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"313","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijmachtools.2005.05.015","article-title":"Investigation of Micro-Cutting Operations","volume":"46","author":"Chae","year":"2006","journal-title":"Int. J. Mach. Tools Manuf."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"032003","DOI":"10.1088\/2631-7990\/ab3e7f","article-title":"Advances in Micro Cutting Tool Design and Fabrication","volume":"1","author":"Fang","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int. J. Extrem. Manuf."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"199","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cja.2023.03.004","article-title":"Conventional and Micro Scale Finite Element Modeling for Metal Cutting Process: A Review","volume":"37","author":"Wang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Chin. J. Aeronaut."},{"key":"ref_36","unstructured":"Perez, N. (2004). Fracture Mechanics, Kluwer Academic Publishers."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"859","DOI":"10.1177\/1056789514555149","article-title":"A Multi-Dimensional Space Method for Dynamic Cracks Problems Using Implicit Time Scheme in the Framework of the Extended Finite Element Method","volume":"24","author":"Cheng","year":"2015","journal-title":"Int. J. Damage Mech."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compstruc.2012.01.009","article-title":"Insight Into an Implicit Time Integration Scheme for Structural Dynamics","volume":"98\u201399","author":"Bathe","year":"2012","journal-title":"Comput. Struct."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compstruc.2018.02.007","article-title":"Further Insights Into an Implicit Time Integration Scheme for Structural Dynamics","volume":"202","author":"Noh","year":"2018","journal-title":"Comput. Struct."},{"key":"ref_40","unstructured":"Callister, W.D. (2001). Fundamentals of Materials Science and Engineering, John Wiley & Sons."},{"key":"ref_41","unstructured":"(2000). Cold Rolled Narrow Steel Strip for Heat Treatment\u2014Technical Delivery Conditions\u2014Part 4: Spring Steels and Other Applications (Standard No. EN 10132-4)."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7291","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijsolstr.2007.04.013","article-title":"Prediction of Tension\u2013Compression Cycles in Multiphase Steel Using a Modified Incremental Mean-Field Model","volume":"44","author":"Delannay","year":"2007","journal-title":"Int. J. Solids Struct."},{"key":"ref_43","unstructured":"Beer, F.P., Jonhston, E.R., Mazurek, D.F., Cornwell, P.J., and Eisenberg, E.R. (1984). Vector Mechanics for Engineers, Mc Graw-Hill Book Company."},{"key":"ref_44","unstructured":"Baker, T.N. (1983). The Effect of Grain Size on the Mechanical Properties of Ferrous Materials. Yield, Flow and Fracture of Polycrystals, Applied Science Publishers."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5437","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jmrt.2024.02.210","article-title":"Evolution of Mechanical Properties of Ferrite and Pearlite Phases During Spheroidization Process and Their Relationship to the Overall Properties of Low Alloy Steel","volume":"29","author":"Jiang","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Mater. Res. Technol."}],"container-title":["Materials"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1996-1944\/19\/9\/1836\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,29]],"date-time":"2026-04-29T15:09:45Z","timestamp":1777475385000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1996-1944\/19\/9\/1836"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,29]]},"references-count":45,"journal-issue":{"issue":"9","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,5]]}},"alternative-id":["ma19091836"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ma19091836","relation":{},"ISSN":["1996-1944"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1996-1944","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,29]]}}}