{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,30]],"date-time":"2026-07-30T10:30:01Z","timestamp":1785407401809,"version":"3.56.0"},"reference-count":55,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"10","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,15]],"date-time":"2026-05-15T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1778803200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"European Union\u2019s Horizon Europe Research and Innovation Program","award":["101058422"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["101058422"]}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100018960","name":"National Technical University of Athens","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100018960","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/03cx6bg69","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Materials"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The modern world is confronting critical environmental and biomedical challenges, underscoring the urgent need for the development of multifunctional materials\u2014an inherently interdisciplinary field, bridging materials science and engineering, environmental science and biomedicine. Titanium dioxide (TiO2) is widely recognized for its photocatalytic and antiviral properties, enabling the degradation of pollutants and mitigation of viral contamination under solar irradiation. Nevertheless, it exhibits certain limitations, such as wide band gap and high recombination rate of photogenerated electron\u2013hole pairs. To address these limitations, TiO2 prepared by a co-precipitation method was modified with N-Doped Carbon Dots (N-CDs) via a hydrothermal treatment, which extend light absorption into the visible region and enhance charge separation. Further functionalization with silver nanoparticles (Ag NPs)\u2014well known for their antimicrobial properties\u2014via a simple thermal process under ambient conditions, introduced additional reactive oxygen species generation, creating a synergistic effect. The as-prepared TiO2, TiO2\/N-CDs and TiO2\/N-CDs\/Ag samples were characterized via several techniques, such as XRD, micro-Raman, FT-IR, TEM and UV-Vis. In addition, their photocatalytic and antiviral activity against methylene blue (MB) and nitrogen oxide (NOx) pollutants, as well as SARS-CoV-2, was evaluated. Based on the results of liquid-phase photocatalysis, TiO2, TiO2\/N-CDs and TiO2\/N-CDs\/Ag presented a degradation efficiency of 78%, 85% and 95%, respectively, whereas different trends were observed under gaseous-phase conditions. The TiO2\/N-CDs\/Ag hybrid material demonstrated superior antiviral activity against SARS-CoV-2 (IC50: 1.24 \u00b1 0.34 g\/L), compared to both TiO2 (IC50: 1.78 \u00b1 0.30 g\/L) and TiO2\/N-CDs (IC50: &gt;2.5 g\/L), highlighting its potential as an effective multifunctional material. Finally, TiO2\/N-CDs\/Ag was incorporated onto a paper substrate, demonstrating antiviral activity, showing promising scalability for application across a wide range of future substrates. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study presenting TiO2\/N-CDs\/Ag with dual photocatalytic and antiviral activity.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ma19102084","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,15]],"date-time":"2026-05-15T14:19:29Z","timestamp":1778854769000},"page":"2084","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Carbon Dots-TiO2 Decorated with Ag Nanoparticles for Efficient Photocatalytic and Antiviral Applications"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"19","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4015-750X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Alexandra","family":"Karagianni","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Chemical Engineering, National Technical University of Athens (NTUA), 9 Iroon Polytechniou St., Zografou, 15780 Athens, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2208-5629","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Adamantia","family":"Zourou","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Chemical Engineering, National Technical University of Athens (NTUA), 9 Iroon Polytechniou St., Zografou, 15780 Athens, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1275-0581","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Aekkachai","family":"Tuekprakhon","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre of Liver and Gastrointestinal for Research, Department of immunology and Immunotherapy, School of Infection, Inflammation and Immunology, College of Medicine and Health, University of Birmingham, Birmingham B15 2TT, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9782-023X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Afroditi","family":"Ntziouni","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Chemical Engineering, National Technical University of Athens (NTUA), 9 Iroon Polytechniou St., Zografou, 15780 Athens, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Anna-Maria","family":"Tavlaridi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Chemical Engineering, National Technical University of Athens (NTUA), 9 Iroon Polytechniou St., Zografou, 15780 Athens, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1163-3463","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ioanna","family":"Kitsou","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Mining & Metallurgical Engineering, National Technical University of Athens, 9 Iroon Polytechniou St., Zografou, 15780 Athens, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Dimitra","family":"Katerinopoulou","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Photo-Catalytic Nano Materials (PCN) Materials, Craftsmen Industrial Park of Heraklion, 5 Knossou St., Anopolis, 70008 Heraklion, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Aspasia","family":"Stoumpidi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Photo-Catalytic Nano Materials (PCN) Materials, Craftsmen Industrial Park of Heraklion, 5 Knossou St., Anopolis, 70008 Heraklion, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Georgios","family":"Kiriakidis","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Photo-Catalytic Nano Materials (PCN) Materials, Craftsmen Industrial Park of Heraklion, 5 Knossou St., Anopolis, 70008 Heraklion, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3823-4497","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Zania","family":"Stamataki","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre of Liver and Gastrointestinal for Research, Department of immunology and Immunotherapy, School of Infection, Inflammation and Immunology, College of Medicine and Health, University of Birmingham, Birmingham B15 2TT, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1630-0262","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Konstantinos V.","family":"Kordatos","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Chemical Engineering, National Technical University of Athens (NTUA), 9 Iroon Polytechniou St., Zografou, 15780 Athens, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,15]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lin, L., Yang, H., and Xu, X. (2022). Effects of Water Pollution on Human Health and Disease Heterogeneity: A Review. Front. Environ. Sci., 10.","DOI":"10.3389\/fenvs.2022.880246"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2200744","DOI":"10.1002\/smll.202200744","article-title":"Recent Progress of Carbon Dots for Air Pollutants Detection and Photocatalytic Removal: Synthesis, Modifications, and Applications","volume":"18","author":"Zhao","year":"2022","journal-title":"Small"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Manisalidis, I., Stavropoulou, E., Stavropoulos, A., and Bezirtzoglou, E. (2020). Environmental and Health Impacts of Air Pollution: A Review. Front. Public Health, 8.","DOI":"10.3389\/fpubh.2020.00014"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18183","DOI":"10.1021\/acsomega.3c10310","article-title":"Photocatalytic-Driven Antiviral Activities of Heterostructured BiOCl0.2 Br0.8\u2013BiOBr Semiconductors","volume":"9","author":"Abbasi","year":"2024","journal-title":"ACS Omega"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kotta, S., Aldawsari, H.M., Badr-Eldin, S.M., Alhakamy, N.A., Md, S., Nair, A.B., and Deb, P.K. (2020). Exploring the Potential of Carbon Dots to Combat COVID-19. Front. Mol. Biosci., 7.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmolb.2020.616575"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"673","DOI":"10.36347\/sjet.2025.v13i08.007","article-title":"Multifunctional Nanomaterials in Materials Chemistry: A Cross-Disciplinary Review of Applications in Energy, Environment, Catalysis, and Biomedicine","volume":"13","author":"Shakeel","year":"2025","journal-title":"Sch. J. Eng. Technol."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.chemmater.3c01878","article-title":"Hybrid Materials: A Metareview","volume":"36","author":"Pokhriyal","year":"2024","journal-title":"Chem. Mater."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"140703","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chemosphere.2023.140703","article-title":"Advancements in TiO2-Based Photocatalysis for Environmental Remediation: Strategies for Enhancing Visible-Light-Driven Activity","volume":"349","author":"Rashid","year":"2024","journal-title":"Chemosphere"},{"key":"ref_9","first-page":"3","article-title":"Modified TiO2 Based Photocatalysts for Improved Air and Health Quality","volume":"3","author":"Binas","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Mater."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1614","DOI":"10.1002\/ese3.1142","article-title":"Application of Ultrathin TiO2 Layers in Solar Energy Conversion Devices","volume":"10","author":"Zhou","year":"2022","journal-title":"Energy Sci. Eng."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110064","DOI":"10.1016\/j.est.2023.110064","article-title":"Review on Titanium Dioxide Nanostructured Electrode Materials for High-Performance Lithium Batteries","volume":"78","author":"Munonde","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Energy Storage"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3447","DOI":"10.2147\/IJN.S249441","article-title":"Biomedical Applications of TiO2 Nanostructures: Recent Advances","volume":"15","author":"Jafari","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Nanomed."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Karagianni, A., Zourou, A., Ntziouni, A., Qu, C., Terrones, M., Argirusis, C., Alexandratou, E., and Kordatos, K.V. (2026). Carbon Dots\u2013TiO2 Hybrid Nanomaterials with Enhanced Photochemical Properties and Photodynamic Therapy Activity. Processes, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/pr14071048"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/S1389-5567(00)00002-2","article-title":"Titanium Dioxide Photocatalysis","volume":"1","author":"Fujishima","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Photochem. Photobiol. C Photochem. Rev."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100262","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ceja.2022.100262","article-title":"Titanium Dioxide (TiO2)-Based Photocatalyst Materials Activity Enhancement for Contaminants of Emerging Concern (CECs) Degradation: In the Light of Modification Strategies","volume":"10","author":"Anucha","year":"2022","journal-title":"Chem. Eng. J. Adv."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9919","DOI":"10.1021\/cr5001892","article-title":"Understanding TiO2 Photocatalysis: Mechanisms and Materials","volume":"114","author":"Schneider","year":"2014","journal-title":"Chem. Rev."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kotzias, D., Binas, V., and Kiriakidis, G. (2022). Smart Surfaces: Photocatalytic Degradation of Priority Pollutants on TiO2-Based Coatings in Indoor and Outdoor Environments\u2014Principles and Mechanisms. Materials, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/ma15020402"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Serov, D.A., Gritsaeva, A.V., Yanbaev, F.M., Simakin, A.V., and Gudkov, S.V. (2024). Review of Antimicrobial Properties of Titanium Dioxide Nanoparticles. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 25.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms251910519"},{"key":"ref_19","first-page":"1","article-title":"Antiviral Properties of Titanium Nanoparticles and Features of Their Influence on the Morphology of Virions","volume":"4","author":"Pinchuk","year":"2024","journal-title":"Ger. J. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Miyauchi, M., Sunada, K., and Hashimoto, K. (2020). Antiviral Effect of Visible Light-Sensitive CuxO\/TiO2 Photocatalyst. Catalysts, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/catal10091093"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"54","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apcatb.2014.10.052","article-title":"Inactivation of MS2 Coliphage in Sewage by Solar Photocatalysis Using Metal-Doped TiO2","volume":"178","author":"Venieri","year":"2015","journal-title":"Appl. Catal. B Environ."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zourou, A., Ntziouni, A., Karagianni, A., Alizadeh, N., Argirusis, N., Antoniadou, M., Sourkouni, G., Kordatos, K.V., and Argirusis, C. (2025). Recent Advances in Carbon Dots-Based Photocatalysts for Water Treatment Applications. Inorganics, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/inorganics13090286"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"219","DOI":"10.1016\/j.carbon.2022.04.029","article-title":"Recent Advances in Carbon Dots\/2-D Hybrid Materials","volume":"195","author":"Falara","year":"2022","journal-title":"Carbon"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"273","DOI":"10.1016\/j.carbon.2022.11.026","article-title":"Application of Carbon-Based Quantum Dots in Photodynamic Therapy","volume":"203","author":"Karagianni","year":"2023","journal-title":"Carbon"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2400401","DOI":"10.1002\/sstr.202400401","article-title":"Antiviral Activity of Carbon Dots: Strategies and Mechanisms of Action","volume":"6","author":"Innocenzi","year":"2025","journal-title":"Small Struct."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"22481","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ceramint.2018.09.017","article-title":"One-Pot Solvothermal Synthesis of Carbon Dots\/Ag Nanoparticles\/TiO2 Nanocomposites with Enhanced Photocatalytic Performance","volume":"44","author":"Wang","year":"2018","journal-title":"Ceram. Int."},{"key":"ref_27","first-page":"6","article-title":"Photocatalytic Degradation Evaluation Using Ternary Structures of Titanium Dioxide, Silver and Carbon Quantum Dots","volume":"2","author":"Omori","year":"2024","journal-title":"JSSE J. Sci. Sustain. Eng."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Luceri, A., Francese, R., Lembo, D., Ferraris, M., and Balagna, C. (2023). Silver Nanoparticles: Review of Antiviral Properties, Mechanism of Action and Applications. Microorganisms, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/microorganisms11030629"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104274","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jtice.2022.104274","article-title":"Silver\/Carbon Co-Decorated Hollow TiO2 Catalyst Drives the Efficient Photocatalytic Degradation\/Catalytic Hydrogenation of 4-Nitrophenol","volume":"133","author":"Zhang","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Taiwan Inst. Chem. Eng."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"138664","DOI":"10.1016\/j.matlet.2025.138664","article-title":"Evaluation of the Role of Silver in the Photocatalytic Hydrogen Production Reaction Using a Ternary TiO2\/GQD\/Ag Structure","volume":"394","author":"Sakaguti","year":"2025","journal-title":"Mater. Lett."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"912","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jallcom.2019.05.199","article-title":"Carbon Quantum Dots\/Ag Sensitized TiO2 Nanotube Film for Applications in Photocathodic Protection","volume":"797","author":"Guan","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Alloys Compd."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"255","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jphotochem.2018.11.023","article-title":"Effect of Metal Doped and Co-Doped TiO2 Photocatalysts Oriented to Degrade Indoor\/Outdoor Pollutants for Air Quality Improvement. A Kinetic and Product Study Using Acetaldehyde as Probe Molecule","volume":"371","author":"Karafas","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Photochem. Photobiol. Chem."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"119612","DOI":"10.1016\/j.carbon.2024.119612","article-title":"Synthesis and Characterization of Magnetic Carbon Dots (CDs)-Based Hybrid Material as an Adsorbent for the Removal of Organic Dye from Water","volume":"230","author":"Zourou","year":"2024","journal-title":"Carbon"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Falara, P.P., Antoniadou, M., Zourou, A., Sakellis, E., and Kordatos, K.V. (2024). Carbon Dot-Titanium Dioxide (CD\/TiO2) Nanocomposites: Reusable Photocatalyst for Sustainable H2 Production via Photoreforming of Green Organic Compounds. Coatings, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/coatings14010131"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"223","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apsusc.2018.02.008","article-title":"Development of SiO2@TiO2 Core-Shell Nanospheres for Catalytic Applications","volume":"441","author":"Kitsou","year":"2018","journal-title":"Appl. Surf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"055011","DOI":"10.1088\/1681-7575\/acf76d","article-title":"Quantification of Titanium Dioxide (TiO2) Anatase and Rutile Polymorphs in Binary Mixtures by Raman Spectroscopy: An Interlaboratory Comparison","volume":"60","author":"Sacco","year":"2023","journal-title":"Metrologia"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"118742","DOI":"10.1016\/j.saa.2020.118742","article-title":"Surface Enhanced Raman Scattering of Bacteria Using Capped and Uncapped Silver Nanoparticles","volume":"242","author":"Sorensen","year":"2020","journal-title":"Spectrochim. Acta A Mol. Biomol. Spectrosc."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104729","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jece.2020.104729","article-title":"One-Step Synthesis of Ag Nanoparticles\/Carbon Dots\/TiO2 Nanotube Arrays Composite Photocatalyst with Enhanced Photocatalytic Activity","volume":"9","author":"Wei","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Environ. Chem. Eng."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"37716","DOI":"10.1021\/acsomega.4c03046","article-title":"Surface-Enhanced Raman Scattering on Size-Classified Silver Nanoparticles Generated by Laser Ablation","volume":"9","author":"Kenmotsu","year":"2024","journal-title":"ACS Omega"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"912","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-020-57794-1","article-title":"Titanium Dioxide Nanoparticles (TiO2 NPs) Promote Growth and Ameliorate Salinity Stress Effects on Essential Oil Profile and Biochemical Attributes of Dracocephalum Moldavica","volume":"10","author":"Gohari","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"611","DOI":"10.1039\/D0NA00799D","article-title":"Stimuli Responsive Multicolour Fluorescence Emission in Carbon Nanodots and Application in Metal Free Hydrogen Evolution from Water","volume":"3","author":"Paul","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nanoscale Adv."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100022","DOI":"10.1016\/j.greeac.2022.100022","article-title":"Nitrogen Doped Carbon Dots for Sensitive Detection of Permanganate and Hydrazine by a Fluorescence Off-on Strategy","volume":"3","author":"Zhi","year":"2022","journal-title":"Green. Anal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100588","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cartre.2025.100588","article-title":"Investigation of the Synthesis of Carbon Dots from Citric Acid and Urea: Evidence of the Formation of Organic Fluorophores and Study of Their Impact in Catalysis","volume":"22","author":"Gurel","year":"2025","journal-title":"Carbon Trends"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Le\u00f3n, A., Reuquen, P., Gar\u00edn, C., Segura, R., Vargas, P., Zapata, P., and Orihuela, P.A. (2017). FTIR and Raman Characterization of TiO2 Nanoparticles Coated with Polyethylene Glycol as Carrier for 2-Methoxyestradiol. Appl. Sci., 7.","DOI":"10.3390\/app7010049"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pasieczna-Patkowska, S., Cichy, M., and Flieger, J. (2025). Application of Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) Spectroscopy in Characterization of Green Synthesized Nanoparticles. Molecules, 30.","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules30030684"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"241","DOI":"10.1007\/s42452-019-0253-6","article-title":"Investigation of Temperature-Dependent Optical Properties of TiO2 Using Diffuse Reflectance Spectroscopy","volume":"1","author":"Mishra","year":"2019","journal-title":"SN Appl. Sci."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"31931","DOI":"10.1039\/D5RA05064B","article-title":"Photoelectrochemical Water Splitting Using TiO2\/\u03b1-Fe2O3 Heterojunction Films Produced by Chemical Vapour Deposition","volume":"15","author":"Alotaibi","year":"2025","journal-title":"RSC Adv."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"27175","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-024-77752-5","article-title":"A Comparative Study for Optimizing Photocatalytic Activity of TiO2-Based Composites with ZrO2, ZnO, Ta2O5, SnO, Fe2O3, and CuO Additives","volume":"14","author":"Abdelfattah","year":"2024","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"550","DOI":"10.55730\/1300-0527.3679","article-title":"Exploring the Efficiency of Nitrogenated Carbon Quantum Dots\/TiO2 S-Scheme Heterojunction in the Photodegredation of Ciprofloxacin in Aqueous Environments","volume":"48","author":"Metin","year":"2024","journal-title":"Turk. J. Chem."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2805","DOI":"10.1021\/jp0469618","article-title":"Effects of Simultaneously Doped and Deposited Ag on the Photocatalytic Activity and Surface States of TiO2","volume":"109","author":"Xin","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Phys. Chem. B"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"181","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cej.2016.08.080","article-title":"Photodecomposition of NOx on Ag\/TiO2 Composite Catalysts in a Gas Phase Reactor","volume":"307","author":"Xu","year":"2017","journal-title":"Chem. Eng. J."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100716","DOI":"10.1016\/j.coche.2021.100716","article-title":"TiO2-Based Nanomaterials Assisted Photocatalytic Treatment for Virus Inactivation: Perspectives and Applications","volume":"34","author":"Curri","year":"2021","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Chem. Eng."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5804","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-022-09402-7","article-title":"Inactivation of Various Variant Types of SARS-CoV-2 by Indoor-Light-Sensitive TiO2-Based Photocatalyst","volume":"12","author":"Nakano","year":"2022","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20638","DOI":"10.1021\/acsami.2c23251","article-title":"Porous Cellulose Thin Films as Sustainable and Effective Antimicrobial Surface Coatings","volume":"15","author":"Qi","year":"2023","journal-title":"Appl. Mat. Interf."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.1039\/D0EN00980F","article-title":"Antiviral-nanoparticle interactions and reactions","volume":"8","author":"Vecitis","year":"2021","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Nano"}],"container-title":["Materials"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1996-1944\/19\/10\/2084\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,17]],"date-time":"2026-05-17T04:10:44Z","timestamp":1778991044000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1996-1944\/19\/10\/2084"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,15]]},"references-count":55,"journal-issue":{"issue":"10","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,5]]}},"alternative-id":["ma19102084"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ma19102084","relation":{},"ISSN":["1996-1944"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1996-1944","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,15]]}}}