{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,30]],"date-time":"2026-07-30T11:55:28Z","timestamp":1785412528055,"version":"3.56.0"},"reference-count":24,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"10","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,20]],"date-time":"2026-05-20T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1779235200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100002855","name":"National Key Research and Development Program of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["2024YFE0108400"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2024YFE0108400"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100002855","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100012905","name":"Natural Science Foundation of Shandong Province","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["ZR2023ZD18"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["ZR2023ZD18"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100012905","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100012905","name":"Key R&D Program of Shandong Province","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["2024KJHZ015"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2024KJHZ015"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100012905","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"Collaborative Innovation Project of Colleges in Jinan","award":["202333013"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["202333013"]}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100014890","name":"Qilu University of Technology","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["2024GH04"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2024GH04"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100014890","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"award":["2024GH04"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2024GH04"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/04hyzq608","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Materials"],"abstract":"<jats:p>This study systematically investigated flow boiling characteristics within a novel three-layer microchannel heat sink with 3\/4 open-ring pin fin arrays, designed for high-heat-flux thermal management of low-carbon metallurgical reactors. Two-phase flow regimes, pressure drop, and wall temperature responses were analyzed. To evaluate the impact of functional surface material properties on thermo-hydraulic behavior, a hydrophilic nano-coating modification was applied to the inner copper channel walls for comparison. Increasing the flow rate triggered a transition from a vapor-dominated confined slug flow to a liquid-dominated dispersed bubble flow, which effectively improved the thermo-hydraulic stability. Hydrophilic surface modification resulted in an average pressure drop reduction of 33% and significantly diminished the sensitivity of flow resistance to velocity variations. Through hydrophilic treatment, the localized vapor film effect at high velocities was suppressed, and temperature field homogenization was promoted, yielding a maximum convective heat transfer coefficient of 7760 W\/(m2\u00b7\u00b0C), i.e., 72.9% enhancement over the baseline heat sink. The underlying mechanism is attributed to the formation of a stable near-wall thin liquid film and the promotion of high-frequency nucleate boiling. These results will be of high relevance for developing efficient cooling solutions for power electronics, thereby supporting the advancement of low-carbon metallurgical reactors.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ma19102143","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,20]],"date-time":"2026-05-20T12:30:51Z","timestamp":1779280251000},"page":"2143","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Improved Thermo-Hydraulic Stability and Boiling Heat Transfer Through a Novel Three-Layer Microchannel Heat Sink with 3\/4 Open-Ring Pin Fin Arrays"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"19","author":[{"given":"Guangyao","family":"Liu","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Energy Research Institute, Qilu University of Technology (Shandong Academy of Sciences), Jinan 250014, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Can","family":"Ji","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Energy Research Institute, Qilu University of Technology (Shandong Academy of Sciences), Jinan 250014, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Zhigang","family":"Liu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Energy Research Institute, Qilu University of Technology (Shandong Academy of Sciences), Jinan 250014, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4819-3847","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Peter D.","family":"Lund","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Science, Aalto University, Puumiehenkuja 2, P.O. Box 15100, FI-00076 Espoo, Finland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yeyao","family":"Liu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Energy Research Institute, Qilu University of Technology (Shandong Academy of Sciences), Jinan 250014, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Fuqiang","family":"Xu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Energy Research Institute, Qilu University of Technology (Shandong Academy of Sciences), Jinan 250014, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Shenglong","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Energy Research Institute, Qilu University of Technology (Shandong Academy of Sciences), Jinan 250014, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Cong","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Energy Research Institute, Qilu University of Technology (Shandong Academy of Sciences), Jinan 250014, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Donghao","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Energy Research Institute, Qilu University of Technology (Shandong Academy of Sciences), Jinan 250014, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,20]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111494","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ast.2025.111494","article-title":"A novel 3D integrated circuit microchannel heat sink with coupled phase change cooling for thermal management of aerospace electronic devices","volume":"169","author":"Ao","year":"2026","journal-title":"Aerosp. 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