{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,10]],"date-time":"2026-09-10T23:48:22Z","timestamp":1789084102057,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":50,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"10","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,21]],"date-time":"2026-05-21T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1779321600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Materials"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The purpose of this study was to evaluate how an alkali activator, specifically soluble glass, influences the geotechnical performance of sandy-pebble soil when combined with biomass bottom ash (BMA) as a sustainable stabilizing material. This work focused on understanding whether alkali activation could increase the strength, compactness, and overall engineering suitability of these mixtures while also examining how the activator affects permeability. To accomplish this, mixtures containing different proportions of BMA were prepared and treated with soluble glass at controlled water-to-activator ratios, followed by standard geotechnical procedures including Proctor compaction and California Bearing Ratio testing to assess density and load-bearing capacity. The results showed that soluble glass substantially improved the mechanical behavior of the mixtures, with both Proctor density values varying from 1.48 to 2.04 Mg\/m3, depending on BMA content and activator dosage, while CBR values more than doubled for mixtures containing 20% BMA at a water-to-soluble-glass ratio of 1:3. Water permeability decreased with increasing BMA and activator content, from 8.11 \u00d7 10\u22125 to 5.91 \u00d7 10\u22125 m\/s, although the permeability threshold of \u22642 \u00d7 10\u22125 m\/s was not reached. These enhancements were linked to better packing of soil particles due to the void-filling effect of BMA and the formation of new binding compounds produced through alkali-activation reactions, including N-A-S-H and C-S-H gels. However, this study also found that higher amounts of soluble glass reduced water permeability, an effect associated with the denser microstructure created during geopolymerization. Overall, the findings demonstrate that stabilizing sandy-pebble soil with alkali-activated BMA is an effective approach to improving essential geotechnical properties while simultaneously offering environmental benefits by repurposing biomass waste in ground-improvement applications.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ma19102169","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,21]],"date-time":"2026-05-21T13:53:24Z","timestamp":1779371604000},"page":"2169","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["Effect of Soluble Glass Alkali Activation on the Geotechnical Performance of Sandy-Pebble Soil Stabilized with Biomass Bottom Ash"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"19","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8176-4413","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Danut\u0117","family":"Vai\u010diukynien\u0117","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Architecture and Civil Engineering, Kaunas University of Technology, Student\u0173 St. 48, 51367 Kaunas, Lithuania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3973-412X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Gediminas","family":"Stelmokaitis","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Architecture and Civil Engineering, Kaunas University of Technology, Student\u0173 St. 48, 51367 Kaunas, Lithuania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8212-3095","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Petros","family":"Christou","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Civil Engineering, Frederick University, 1036 Nicosia, Cyprus"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,21]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"IEA (International Energy Agency) (2023). 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