{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,30]],"date-time":"2026-07-30T09:18:02Z","timestamp":1785403082160,"version":"3.56.0"},"reference-count":41,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"12","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,10]],"date-time":"2026-06-10T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1781049600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["52571364"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["52571364"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"award":["52571364"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["52571364"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/01h0zpd94","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Materials"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The emergence of selective laser melting (SLM) has enabled the fabrication of complex structures with exceptional mechanical performance. However, process-induced defects, including porosity and geometric deviations, pose significant challenges to structural reliability, and their dynamic evolution under loading remains poorly understood. In this study, helical layered square honeycomb structures were fabricated via SLM. The effects of process conditions on defect characteristics, as well as the influence of porosity and wall thickness defects on mechanical properties, were investigated using X-ray computed tomography (CT), in situ loading tests, and finite element simulation. The results indicate that the investigated high-quality process conditions minimize porosity, optimize pore morphology, and improve wall thickness uniformity, thereby substantially reducing the adverse effects of pores on tensile properties. Under compressive loading, defect evolution, including pore expansion and wall thickness thinning, is primarily concentrated at structural corners, with more pronounced variations observed under coarse process conditions. Increased porosity, wall thickness reduction, and uneven thickness distribution all degrade the quasi-static compressive performance and medium to high-velocity impact resistance of the structure. Furthermore, thickness distribution exerts an independent influence on mechanical properties beyond the effect of overall average thickness.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ma19122492","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,11]],"date-time":"2026-06-11T00:48:35Z","timestamp":1781138915000},"page":"2492","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Effect of Internal Defects on the Compression Behavior of Helical Layered Square Honeycombs Fabricated by Selective Laser Melting"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"19","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0002-3461-5727","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yue","family":"Ni","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Ship Shock Damage and Safety Protection Key Discipline and Technology Research Center, Wuhan University of Technology, Wuhan 430063, China"},{"name":"Hubei Defense Science and Technology Key Laboratory of Ship Explosion Damage and Protection, Wuhan University of Technology, Wuhan 430063, China"},{"name":"School of Naval Architecture, Ocean and Energy Power Engineering, Wuhan University of Technology, Wuhan 430063, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yangning","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Ship Shock Damage and Safety Protection Key Discipline and Technology Research Center, Wuhan University of Technology, Wuhan 430063, China"},{"name":"Hubei Defense Science and Technology Key Laboratory of Ship Explosion Damage and Protection, Wuhan University of Technology, Wuhan 430063, China"},{"name":"School of Naval Architecture, Ocean and Energy Power Engineering, Wuhan University of Technology, Wuhan 430063, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8490-6974","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Wei","family":"Chen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Ship Shock Damage and Safety Protection Key Discipline and Technology Research Center, Wuhan University of Technology, Wuhan 430063, China"},{"name":"Hubei Defense Science and Technology Key Laboratory of Ship Explosion Damage and Protection, Wuhan University of Technology, Wuhan 430063, China"},{"name":"School of Naval Architecture, Ocean and Energy Power Engineering, Wuhan University of Technology, Wuhan 430063, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Pengcheng","family":"Hu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Ship Shock Damage and Safety Protection Key Discipline and Technology Research Center, Wuhan University of Technology, Wuhan 430063, China"},{"name":"Hubei Defense Science and Technology Key Laboratory of Ship Explosion Damage and Protection, Wuhan University of Technology, Wuhan 430063, China"},{"name":"School of Naval Architecture, Ocean and Energy Power Engineering, Wuhan University of Technology, Wuhan 430063, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Xiaobin","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Ship Shock Damage and Safety Protection Key Discipline and Technology Research Center, Wuhan University of Technology, Wuhan 430063, China"},{"name":"Hubei Defense Science and Technology Key Laboratory of Ship Explosion Damage and Protection, Wuhan University of Technology, Wuhan 430063, China"},{"name":"School of Naval Architecture, Ocean and Energy Power Engineering, Wuhan University of Technology, Wuhan 430063, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4755-2182","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Wenchao","family":"Ke","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Hubei Digital Manufacturing Key Laboratory, School of Mechanical and Electronic Engineering, Wuhan University of Technology, Wuhan 430070, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jianye","family":"Du","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Ship Shock Damage and Safety Protection Key Discipline and Technology Research Center, Wuhan University of Technology, Wuhan 430063, China"},{"name":"Hubei Defense Science and Technology Key Laboratory of Ship Explosion Damage and Protection, Wuhan University of Technology, Wuhan 430063, China"},{"name":"School of Naval Architecture, Ocean and Energy Power Engineering, Wuhan University of Technology, Wuhan 430063, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,10]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","first-page":"505","article-title":"Energy absorption characteristics of metallic triply periodic minimal surface sheet structures under compressive loading","volume":"23","author":"Zhang","year":"2018","journal-title":"Addit. Manuf."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105480","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijmecsci.2020.105480","article-title":"Sheet and network based functionally graded lattice structures manufactured by selective laser melting: Design, mechanical properties, and simulation","volume":"175","author":"Zhou","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Mech. Sci."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"27","DOI":"10.1016\/j.matdes.2018.01.023","article-title":"Evaluation of topology-optimized lattice structures manufactured via selective laser melting","volume":"143","author":"Xiao","year":"2018","journal-title":"Mater. Des."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113009","DOI":"10.1016\/j.matdes.2024.113009","article-title":"Effects of design and manufacturing deviations on compressive properties of glass sponge lattice structures manufactured by selective laser melting","volume":"242","author":"He","year":"2024","journal-title":"Mater. Des."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"53746","DOI":"10.1021\/acsami.3c13270","article-title":"3D chiral energy-absorbing structures with a high deformation recovery ratio fabricated via selective laser melting of the NiTi alloy","volume":"15","author":"Li","year":"2023","journal-title":"ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"112155","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tws.2024.112155","article-title":"Achieving high strength and energy absorption of novel 3D printed helical layered square honeycombs","volume":"203","author":"Xia","year":"2024","journal-title":"Thin-Walled Struct."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"112","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pmatsci.2017.10.001","article-title":"Additive manufacturing of metallic components\u2014Process, structure and properties","volume":"92","author":"DebRoy","year":"2018","journal-title":"Prog. Mater. Sci."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"041304","DOI":"10.1063\/1.4937809","article-title":"Laser powder bed fusion additive manufacturing of metals; physics, computational, and materials challenges","volume":"2","author":"King","year":"2015","journal-title":"Appl. Phys. Rev."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"849","DOI":"10.1126\/science.aav4687","article-title":"Keyhole threshold and morphology in laser melting revealed by ultrahigh-speed x-ray imaging","volume":"363","author":"Cunningham","year":"2019","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"315","DOI":"10.1080\/09506608.2015.1116649","article-title":"The metallurgy and processing science of metal additive manufacturing","volume":"61","author":"Sames","year":"2016","journal-title":"Int. Mater. Rev."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"165","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jmst.2022.02.015","article-title":"Multi-scale defects in powder-based additively manufactured metals and alloys","volume":"122","author":"Fu","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Mater. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_12","first-page":"103845","article-title":"Modeling of hierarchical solidification microstructures in metal additive manufacturing: Challenges and opportunities","volume":"78","author":"Ghosh","year":"2023","journal-title":"Addit. Manuf."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"97","DOI":"10.1177\/09506608251371459","article-title":"Porosity defects in additively manufactured metal materials: Formation mechanisms, impact on performance and regulation","volume":"71","author":"Wang","year":"2025","journal-title":"Int. Mater. Rev."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103555","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijmachtools.2020.103555","article-title":"Direct observation of pore formation mechanisms during LPBF additive manufacturing process and high energy density laser welding","volume":"153","author":"Hojjatzadeh","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Mach. Tools Manuf."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"660","DOI":"10.1126\/science.aay7830","article-title":"Controlling interdependent meso-nanosecond dynamics and defect generation in metal 3D printing","volume":"368","author":"Khairallah","year":"2020","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"169","DOI":"10.1016\/j.actamat.2018.03.036","article-title":"Transient dynamics of powder spattering in laser powder bed fusion additive manufacturing process revealed by in-situ high-speed high-energy x-ray imaging","volume":"151","author":"Guo","year":"2018","journal-title":"Acta Mater."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3602","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-017-03761-2","article-title":"Real-time monitoring of laser powder bed fusion process using high-speed X-ray imaging and diffraction","volume":"7","author":"Zhao","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2986","DOI":"10.1016\/S1003-6326(23)66312-5","article-title":"Quantitative study of geometric characteristics and formation mechanism of porosity defects in selective laser melted Ti6Al4V alloy by micro-computed tomography","volume":"33","author":"An","year":"2023","journal-title":"Trans. Nonferrous Met. Soc. China"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"137703","DOI":"10.1016\/j.matlet.2024.137703","article-title":"The effect of scanning strategies on the defect distribution and mechanical properties of additive manufactured 316L stainless steel components","volume":"379","author":"Zhai","year":"2025","journal-title":"Mater. Lett."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"431","DOI":"10.1016\/j.matdes.2016.01.099","article-title":"Review of in-situ process monitoring and in-situ metrology for metal additive manufacturing","volume":"95","author":"Everton","year":"2016","journal-title":"Mater. Des."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"123","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tafmec.2018.09.011","article-title":"Linking microstructure and processing defects to mechanical properties of selectively laser melted AlSi10Mg alloy","volume":"98","author":"Larrosa","year":"2018","journal-title":"Theor. Appl. Fract. Mech."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109305","DOI":"10.1016\/j.engfailanal.2025.109305","article-title":"The effect of porosity on the fatigue crack growth behavior of selective laser melted TA15 titanium alloy","volume":"170","author":"Wang","year":"2025","journal-title":"Eng. Fail. Anal."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"348","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijfatigue.2019.03.019","article-title":"On the effect of geometrical imperfections and defects on the fatigue strength of cellular lattice structures additively manufactured via Selective Laser Melting","volume":"124","author":"Dallago","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int. J. Fatigue"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105811","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijfatigue.2020.105811","article-title":"Fatigue behaviour of additively manufactured Ti-6Al-4V alloy: The role of defects on scatter and statistical size effect","volume":"140","author":"Le","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Fatigue"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"178","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijfatigue.2016.06.020","article-title":"A comparison of fatigue strength sensitivity to defects for materials manufactured by AM or traditional processes","volume":"94","author":"Beretta","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int. J. Fatigue"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105479","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijfatigue.2020.105479","article-title":"Multiaxial fatigue of additive manufactured metals: Performance, analysis, and applications","volume":"134","author":"Fatemi","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Fatigue"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gupta, A.K., Choudhari, A., Rane, A., Tiwari, A., Sharma, P., Gupta, A., Sapale, P., Tirumala, R.T.A., Muthaiah, R., and Kumar, A. (2024). Advances in nickel-containing high-entropy alloys: From fundamentals to additive manufacturing. Materials, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/ma17153826"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"116","DOI":"10.1016\/j.promfg.2017.09.018","article-title":"Computed tomography approach to quality control of the Inconel 718 components obtained by additive manufacturing (SLM)","volume":"13","author":"Ortega","year":"2017","journal-title":"Procedia Manuf."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"608","DOI":"10.1016\/j.acme.2014.02.003","article-title":"Application of X-ray CT method for discontinuity and porosity detection in 316L stainless steel parts produced with SLM technology","volume":"14","author":"Chlebus","year":"2014","journal-title":"Arch. Civ. Mech. Eng."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108385","DOI":"10.1016\/j.matdes.2019.108385","article-title":"Effects of defects on mechanical properties in metal additive manufacturing: A review focusing on X-ray tomography insights","volume":"187","author":"Yadroitsava","year":"2020","journal-title":"Mater. Des."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110716","DOI":"10.1016\/j.commatsci.2021.110716","article-title":"The influence of defects on the elastic response of lattice structures resulting from additive manufacturing","volume":"199","author":"Jiang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Comput. Mater. Sci."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2","DOI":"10.1115\/1.3443401","article-title":"Continuum Theory of Ductile Rupture by Void Nucleation and Growth: Part I\u2014Yield Criteria and Flow Rules for Porous Ductile Media","volume":"99","author":"Gurson","year":"1977","journal-title":"J. Eng. Mater. Technol."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"389","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00036191","article-title":"Influence of voids on shear band instabilities under plane strain conditions","volume":"17","author":"Tvergaard","year":"1981","journal-title":"Int. J. Fract."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"237","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00015686","article-title":"On localization in ductile materials containing spherical voids","volume":"18","author":"Tvergaard","year":"1982","journal-title":"Int. J. Fract."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"157","DOI":"10.1016\/0001-6160(84)90213-X","article-title":"Analysis of the cup-cone fracture in a round tensile bar","volume":"32","author":"Tvergaard","year":"1984","journal-title":"Acta Metall."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"193","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijplas.2013.08.015","article-title":"An extended GTN model for ductile fracture under high and low stress triaxiality","volume":"54","author":"Malcher","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. J. Plast."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"378","DOI":"10.1016\/S1000-9361(11)60045-9","article-title":"Forming Limit Stress Diagram Prediction of Aluminum Alloy 5052 Based on GTN Model Parameters Determined by In Situ Tensile Test","volume":"24","author":"He","year":"2011","journal-title":"Chin. J. Aeronaut."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"605","DOI":"10.1016\/j.matdes.2012.09.032","article-title":"Parameter identification of a mechanical ductile damage using Artificial Neural Networks in sheet metal forming","volume":"45","author":"Abbassi","year":"2013","journal-title":"Mater. Des."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2003","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.jpcc.3c06941","article-title":"Photocarrier Recombination Dynamics in Highly Scattering Cu2O Nanocatalyst Clusters","volume":"128","author":"Gyawali","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Phys. Chem. C"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"249","DOI":"10.1115\/1.3224807","article-title":"Void Nucleation Effects in Biaxially Stretched Sheets","volume":"102","author":"Chu","year":"1980","journal-title":"J. Eng. Mater. Technol."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"427","DOI":"10.1007\/s00170-015-8199-3","article-title":"Failure analysis of SUS304 sheet during hydro-bulging based on GTN ductile damage model","volume":"86","author":"Zhang","year":"2016","journal-title":"Int. J. Adv. Manuf. Technol."}],"container-title":["Materials"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1996-1944\/19\/12\/2492\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,11]],"date-time":"2026-06-11T00:52:15Z","timestamp":1781139135000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1996-1944\/19\/12\/2492"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,10]]},"references-count":41,"journal-issue":{"issue":"12","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,6]]}},"alternative-id":["ma19122492"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ma19122492","relation":{},"ISSN":["1996-1944"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1996-1944","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,10]]}}}