{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,23]],"date-time":"2026-08-23T17:36:48Z","timestamp":1787506608157,"version":"build-2736575974"},"reference-count":70,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"12","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,12]],"date-time":"2026-06-12T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1781222400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Materials"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Proton exchange membrane fuel cell\u2013battery hybrid power systems provide an effective solution to overcome the limited endurance of battery-powered multirotor unmanned aerial vehicles. However, the highly transient power demands of quadcopter platforms, combined with balance-of-plant losses and operational constraints, create significant challenges for reliable energy management. This study proposes a degradation-aware stress-mitigation model predictive control-based energy management framework to maximize mission endurance under realistic conditions. A control-oriented, physics-consistent model is developed using manufacturer polarization data from a 500 W Aerostak proton exchange membrane fuel cell. The model captures polarization behavior, balance-of-plant loads, battery dynamics, and direct current-bus power balance. The model predictive control strategy optimally allocates power by maintaining direct current-bus stability, regulating battery state-of-charge within safe limits, and constraining fuel cell power ramp rates to mitigate degradation. High-fidelity simulations are conducted under stochastic wind disturbances and mission-dependent load profiles, including takeoff, climb, cruise, and maneuvering phases. The results show continuous power delivery without unmet load demand. The hybrid system achieves a flight endurance of 220\u2013224 min, consuming a total of 89.99 g of hydrogen at an average rate of 0.398\u20130.412 g\/min, indicating a notable reduction under the considered operating conditions. Additionally, long-term analysis indicates that over 97% of initial endurance is preserved after 100 cycles, demonstrating robustness against fuel cell aging. An analytical real-time feasibility assessment further indicates that the control-oriented formulation is compatible with the computational resources of typical unmanned aerial vehicle-class onboard processors, while the integration of adaptive and robust predictive control techniques is identified as a direction for future work.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ma19122548","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,15]],"date-time":"2026-06-15T03:01:27Z","timestamp":1781492487000},"page":"2548","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["Endurance-Oriented Model Predictive Energy Management for a Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell\u2013Battery Hybrid Quadcopter Under Dynamic Mission Conditions"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"19","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0004-1327-012X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Murat","family":"Kayao\u011flu","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Institute of Science, Engineering Faculty, Firat University, 23000 Elazig, T\u00fcrkiye"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5990-933X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sencer","family":"\u00dcnal","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Institute of Science, Engineering Faculty, Firat University, 23000 Elazig, T\u00fcrkiye"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0007-1816-6868","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Hilal","family":"Biyik","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Institute of Science, Engineering Faculty, Firat University, 23000 Elazig, T\u00fcrkiye"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,12]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","first-page":"5","article-title":"Mini Unmanned Aerial Systems (UAV)-A Review of the Parameters for Classification of a Mini UAV","volume":"7","author":"PS","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. 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