{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,30]],"date-time":"2026-07-30T17:26:53Z","timestamp":1785432413646,"version":"3.56.0"},"reference-count":39,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"13","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,26]],"date-time":"2026-06-26T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1782432000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100004421","name":"Warsaw University of Technology","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["IChem-2025 grant no. 504\/05025\/1070\/43.062501"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["IChem-2025 grant no. 504\/05025\/1070\/43.062501"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100004421","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"award":["IChem-2025 grant no. 504\/05025\/1070\/43.062501"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["IChem-2025 grant no. 504\/05025\/1070\/43.062501"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/00y0xnp53","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Materials"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Carbon dioxide (CO2) conversion in non-thermal plasma is a promising route for carbon utilisation under mild conditions. This study investigates the performance and dynamic behaviour of kaolin-based catalysts modified with Ni (nickel), Ni\u2013Ce (nickel-cerium), and Fe\u2013Cu (iron-copper) oxides in a Dielectric Barrier Discharge (DBD) reactor. Materials were characterised using X-ray diffraction, energy-dispersive X-ray fluorescence, and scanning electron microscopy with energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy. CO2 conversion was evaluated at varying Plasma Energy Numbers (PEN = 1.65\u201320) with time-resolved gas analysis over a 10 min period. Results demonstrate that the kaolin support is not inert; its dielectric properties actively influence discharge characteristics. Ni-based catalysts exhibited the highest stable activity, reaching ~53% conversion for samples calcined at 500 \u00b0C. Conversely, adding cerium oxide significantly decreased conversion and induced temporal instabilities, contrasting with its typical role in thermal catalysis. Time-resolved measurements revealed that Ni\u2013Ce and Fe\u2013Cu systems exhibit initial activity followed by gradual deactivation, suggesting plasma-induced surface restructuring. These findings highlight that catalyst performance in DBD is governed by a complex interplay of chemical activity and plasma\u2013material interactions. The generated time-series data provide a robust foundation for machine learning applications in predictive modelling and stability classification of plasma-catalytic systems.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ma19132747","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,29]],"date-time":"2026-06-29T05:49:33Z","timestamp":1782712173000},"page":"2747","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Temporal Evolution of CO2 Conversion over Kaolin-Supported Ni, Ni\u2013Ce and Fe\u2013Cu Catalysts Under Dielectric Barrier Discharge Conditions"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"19","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8487-0390","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Agata","family":"Dorosz","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Chemical and Process Engineering, Warsaw University of Technology, ul. Wary\u0144skiego 1, 00-645 Warsaw, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9012-8347","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Micha\u0142","family":"Lewak","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Chemical and Process Engineering, Warsaw University of Technology, ul. Wary\u0144skiego 1, 00-645 Warsaw, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Katarzyna","family":"Jab\u0142czy\u0144ska","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Chemical and Process Engineering, Warsaw University of Technology, ul. Wary\u0144skiego 1, 00-645 Warsaw, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2520-7476","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Marta","family":"Mazurkiewicz-Pawlicka","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Chemical and Process Engineering, Warsaw University of Technology, ul. Wary\u0144skiego 1, 00-645 Warsaw, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5556-2690","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jakub","family":"Trzci\u0144ski","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre for Advanced Materials and Technologies CEZAMAT, Warsaw University of Technology, Poleczki 19, 02-822 Warsaw, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2298-7320","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Krzysztof","family":"Zaraska","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"\u0141ukasiewicz Research Network\u2014Institute of Microelectronics and Photonics, Krakow Division, ul. Zab\u0142ocie 39, 30-701 Krakow, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2246-8486","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Piotr","family":"Ma\u0107k\u00f3w","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"\u0141ukasiewicz Research Network\u2014Institute of Microelectronics and Photonics, Krakow Division, ul. Zab\u0142ocie 39, 30-701 Krakow, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jakub","family":"Jaworski","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Chemical and Process Engineering, Warsaw University of Technology, ul. Wary\u0144skiego 1, 00-645 Warsaw, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1114-526X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Arkadiusz","family":"Moskal","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Chemical and Process Engineering, Warsaw University of Technology, ul. Wary\u0144skiego 1, 00-645 Warsaw, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,26]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1711","DOI":"10.1039\/c3ee00056g","article-title":"Catalysis for CO2 Conversion: A Key Technology for Rapid Introduction of Renewable Energy in the Value Chain of Chemical Industries","volume":"6","author":"Centi","year":"2013","journal-title":"Energy Environ. Sci."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"43","DOI":"10.1039\/B912904A","article-title":"The Teraton Challenge. A Review of Fixation and Transformation of Carbon Dioxide","volume":"3","author":"Mikkelsen","year":"2010","journal-title":"Energy Environ. 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