{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,30]],"date-time":"2026-07-30T18:19:42Z","timestamp":1785435582624,"version":"3.56.0"},"reference-count":47,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"13","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,27]],"date-time":"2026-06-27T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1782518400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100004281","name":"Polish National Science Centre","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["2021\/43\/D\/ST5\/03042"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2021\/43\/D\/ST5\/03042"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100004281","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"award":["2021\/43\/D\/ST5\/03042"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2021\/43\/D\/ST5\/03042"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/03ha2q922","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Materials"],"abstract":"<jats:p>By using a PMMA-made therapeutic wedge and a recently developed reusable silicone foil dosimeter based on the optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) of MgB4O7:Ce,Li (MBO) material, direct measurements of the complete proton Bragg curves for two independent clinically relevant proton beams were achieved. The PMMA wedge compensator created a controlled range gradient across the beam field, enabling comprehensive characterisation of Bragg curve features, including the entrance plateau, the maximum of the Bragg peak, and the dosimetrically critical distal fall-off region. Measurements were performed using a dedicated, self-built (3D-printed) optical detection setup equipped with a blue LED (440 nm) that illuminates the MBO foil dosimeter and a highly sensitive electron-multiplication (EMCCD) camera, which simultaneously acquires 2D OSL light from the foil. The prototype technology enables single-shot 2D mapping of the complete Bragg curve. Validation against Monte Carlo (MC) simulations and GafchromicTM EBT3 films demonstrates sub-millimetre accuracy in localising the clinically critical proton parameters: peak-to-plateau, FWHM and distal fall-off. Measurements were performed for two independent therapeutic proton beams with initial energies of 58.8 and 61.1 MeV, routinely used for proton eye-beam treatments at IFJ PAN Krakow. As a proof of concept, the results demonstrate the potential of MBO-based silicone foil technology to reproduce clinically relevant Bragg-curve parameters with accuracy approaching that of the current gold standard for passive 2D dosimetry, GafchromicTM EBT3 films, while systematic differences attributable to optical diffusion, residual LET-dependent quenching, and the dual-foil junction remain to be corrected.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ma19132751","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,29]],"date-time":"2026-06-29T05:49:33Z","timestamp":1782712173000},"page":"2751","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["High-Resolution MgB4O7:Ce,Li OSL Foils for Bragg Curve Mapping in Proton Eye Therapy"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"19","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2607-7623","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Micha\u0142","family":"S\u0105del","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Nuclear Physics, Polish Academy of Sciences, PL-31342 Krakow, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3599-854X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Leszek","family":"Grzanka","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Nuclear Physics, Polish Academy of Sciences, PL-31342 Krakow, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9262-7326","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jan","family":"Swako\u0144","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Nuclear Physics, Polish Academy of Sciences, PL-31342 Krakow, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Tomasz","family":"Horwacik","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Nuclear Physics, Polish Academy of Sciences, PL-31342 Krakow, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5358-9491","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Damian","family":"Wr\u00f3bel","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Nuclear Physics, Polish Academy of Sciences, PL-31342 Krakow, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8915-5313","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sebastian","family":"Kusyk","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Nuclear Physics, Polish Academy of Sciences, PL-31342 Krakow, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Piotr","family":"P\u0142atek","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Nuclear Physics, Polish Academy of Sciences, PL-31342 Krakow, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0560-3404","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Pawe\u0142","family":"Bilski","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Nuclear Physics, Polish Academy of Sciences, PL-31342 Krakow, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,27]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"R155","DOI":"10.1088\/0031-9155\/60\/8\/R155","article-title":"The Physics of Proton Therapy","volume":"60","author":"Newhauser","year":"2015","journal-title":"Phys. Med. Biol."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"234","DOI":"10.1038\/nrc.2016.18","article-title":"Radiation Oncology in the Era of Precision Medicine","volume":"16","author":"Baumann","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Cancer"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"185","DOI":"10.1088\/0031-9155\/44\/1\/014","article-title":"Intensity Modulation Methods for Proton Radiotherapy","volume":"44","author":"Lomax","year":"1999","journal-title":"Phys. Med. Biol."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"165007","DOI":"10.1088\/1361-6560\/aad312","article-title":"Optimized I-Values for Use with the Bragg Additivity Rule and Their Impact on Proton Stopping Power and Range Uncertainty","volume":"63","author":"Andreo","year":"2018","journal-title":"Phys. Med. Biol."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"467","DOI":"10.1016\/0168-583X(93)95944-Z","article-title":"Multiple Coulomb Scattering of 160 MeV Protons","volume":"74","author":"Gottschalk","year":"1993","journal-title":"Nucl. Instrum. Methods Phys. Res. B"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"R99","DOI":"10.1088\/0031-9155\/57\/11\/R99","article-title":"Range Uncertainties in Proton Therapy and the Role of Monte Carlo Simulations","volume":"57","author":"Paganetti","year":"2012","journal-title":"Phys. Med. Biol."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4095","DOI":"10.1088\/0031-9155\/57\/13\/4095","article-title":"Comprehensive Analysis of Proton Range Uncertainties Related to Patient Stopping-Power-Ratio Estimation Using the Stoichiometric Calibration","volume":"57","author":"Yang","year":"2012","journal-title":"Phys. Med. Biol."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1622","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijrobp.2004.08.052","article-title":"Isocenter Characteristics of an External Ring Proton Gantry","volume":"60","author":"Moyers","year":"2004","journal-title":"Int. J. Radiat. Oncol. Biol. Phys."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3150","DOI":"10.1118\/1.1779371","article-title":"Treatment Planning and Verification of Proton Therapy Using Spot Scanning: Initial Experiences","volume":"31","author":"Lomax","year":"2004","journal-title":"Med. Phys."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Paganetti, H. (2012). Proton Therapy Physics, CRC Press. [1st ed.].","DOI":"10.1201\/b11448"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"R131","DOI":"10.1088\/0031-9155\/58\/15\/R131","article-title":"In Vivo Proton Range Verification: A Review","volume":"58","author":"Knopf","year":"2013","journal-title":"Phys. Med. Biol."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1528","DOI":"10.1118\/1.4914151","article-title":"Dosimetric Characteristics of the Novel 2D Ionization Chamber Array OCTAVIUS Detector 1500","volume":"42","author":"Stelljes","year":"2015","journal-title":"Med. Phys."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5287","DOI":"10.1118\/1.4928397","article-title":"Dosimetric Commissioning and Quality Assurance of Scanned Ion Beams at the Italian National Centre for Oncological Hadrontherapy","volume":"42","author":"Mirandola","year":"2015","journal-title":"Med. Phys."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2125","DOI":"10.1118\/1.598728","article-title":"A System for Three-Dimensional Dosimetric Verification of Treatment Plans in Intensity-Modulated Radiotherapy with Heavy Ions","volume":"26","author":"Karger","year":"1999","journal-title":"Med. Phys."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"599","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ejmp.2012.10.001","article-title":"Evaluation of Gafchromic\u00ae EBT3 Films Characteristics in Therapy Photon, Electron and Proton Beams","volume":"29","author":"Sorriaux","year":"2013","journal-title":"Phys. Med."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"N291","DOI":"10.1088\/0031-9155\/55\/10\/N04","article-title":"Gafchromic EBT Film Dosimetry in Proton Beams","volume":"55","author":"Zhao","year":"2010","journal-title":"Phys. Med. Biol."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1942","DOI":"10.1118\/1.3373523","article-title":"Energy Dependence and Dose Response of Gafchromic EBT2 Film over a Wide Range of Photon, Electron, and Proton Beam Energies","volume":"37","author":"Arjomandy","year":"2010","journal-title":"Med. Phys."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8741","DOI":"10.1088\/0031-9155\/60\/22\/8741","article-title":"Evaluation of Gafchromic EBT-XD Film, with Comparison to EBT3 Film, and Application in High Dose Radiotherapy Verification","volume":"60","author":"Palmer","year":"2015","journal-title":"Phys. Med. Biol."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5257","DOI":"10.1118\/1.4737890","article-title":"Comparison of Gafchromic EBT2 and EBT3 Films for Clinical Photon and Proton Beams","volume":"39","author":"Reinhardt","year":"2012","journal-title":"Med. Phys."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fitilis, I., Avlakiotis, A., Grigoriadis, A., Batis, G., Petridis, A., Papakostas, A., and Kourkoulis, S.K. (2022). Polymer-Gel Radiation Dosimetry of Laser-Based Relativistic Electron Sources for Biomedical Applications: First Qualitative Results and Experimental Challenges. Front. Phys., 10.","DOI":"10.3389\/fphy.2022.727511"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yukihara, E.G., and McKeever, S.W.S. (2011). Optically Stimulated Luminescence: Fundamentals and Applications, John Wiley & Sons. [1st ed.].","DOI":"10.1002\/9780470977064"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"B\u00f8tter-Jensen, L., McKeever, S.W.S., and Wintle, A.G. (2003). Optically Stimulated Luminescence Dosimetry, Elsevier. [1st ed.].","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-044450684-9\/50091-X"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8441","DOI":"10.1088\/1361-6560\/aa8de6","article-title":"A Reusable OSL-Film for 2D Radiotherapy Dosimetry","volume":"62","author":"Crijns","year":"2017","journal-title":"Phys. Med. Biol."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2412587","DOI":"10.1002\/adfm.202412587","article-title":"A Tissue-Equivalent, Reusable Dosimeter for 3D Verification of Radiotherapy","volume":"35","author":"Jensen","year":"2025","journal-title":"Adv. Funct. Mater."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"225006","DOI":"10.1088\/1361-6560\/ae128f","article-title":"Achieving High-Resolution Spatial Mapping of Dose and Linear Energy Transfer in Ion-Beam Therapy","volume":"70","author":"Jensen","year":"2025","journal-title":"Phys. Med. Biol."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107099","DOI":"10.1016\/j.radmeas.2024.107099","article-title":"Evaluation of TL and OSL signals of MgB4O7:Tm,Li prepared by the solution combustion method","volume":"175","author":"Silva","year":"2024","journal-title":"Radiat. Meas."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106721","DOI":"10.1016\/j.radmeas.2022.106721","article-title":"Demonstration of an Optically Stimulated Luminescence (OSL) Material with Reduced Quenching for Proton Therapy Dosimetry: MgB4O7:Ce,Li","volume":"152","author":"Yukihara","year":"2022","journal-title":"Radiat. Meas."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8262","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-022-10575-4","article-title":"Improved Simultaneous LET and Dose Measurements in Proton Therapy","volume":"12","author":"Christensen","year":"2022","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"124903","DOI":"10.1063\/1.3041655","article-title":"Relative Optically Stimulated Luminescence and Thermoluminescence Efficiencies of Al2O3:C Dosimeters to Heavy Charged Particles with Energies Relevant to Space and Radiotherapy Dosimetry","volume":"104","author":"Sawakuchi","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Appl. Phys."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"658","DOI":"10.1016\/j.radmeas.2009.12.034","article-title":"Medical Applications of Optically Stimulated Luminescence Dosimeters (OSLDs)","volume":"45","author":"Yukihara","year":"2010","journal-title":"Radiat. Meas."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bossin, L., Plokhikh, I., Christensen, J.B., Gawryluk, D.J., Kitagawa, Y., Leblans, P., Tanabe, S., Vandenbroucke, D., and Yukihara, E.G. (2023). Addressing Current Challenges in OSL Dosimetry Using MgB4O7:Ce,Li: State of the Art, Limitations and Avenues of Research. Materials, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/ma16083051"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"96","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jlumin.2019.04.028","article-title":"Progress and Challenges Towards the Development of a New Optically Stimulated Luminescence (OSL) Material Based on MgB4O7:Ce,Li","volume":"212","author":"Gustafson","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Lumin."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"121019","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jlumin.2024.121019","article-title":"Role of Dopant Concentration and Starting Reagents in the Dosimetric Performance of MgB4O7:Ce,Li","volume":"279","author":"Plokhikh","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Lumin."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"120784","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jlumin.2024.120784","article-title":"Impact of Sample Preparation Temperature on Li and Ce Co-Doped MgB4O7 Dosimetry Performance: A Plausible Scenario for Controlling Defect Clustering","volume":"275","author":"Plokhikh","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Lumin."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"S\u0105del, M., Grzanka, L., Swako\u0144, J., Wr\u00f3bel, D., Kusyk, S., Bossin, L., and Bilski, P. (2025). Optically Stimulated Luminescence Silicone Foils for 2D Dose Mapping in Proton Radiotherapy. Materials, 18.","DOI":"10.3390\/ma18091928"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"S\u0105del, M., Gajewski, J., Sowa, U., Swako\u0144, J., Kajdrowicz, T., Bilski, P., K\u0142osowski, M., P\u0119dracka, A., and Horwacik, T. (2021). 3D Dosimetry Based on LiMgPO4 OSL Silicone Foils: Facilitating the Verification of Eye-Ball Cancer Proton Radiotherapy. Sensors, 21.","DOI":"10.3390\/s21186015"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"S\u0105del, M., Grzanka, L., Swako\u0144, J., Baran, J., Gajewski, J., and Bilski, P. (2023). Optically Stimulated Luminescent Response of the LiMgPO4 Silicone Foils to Protons and Its Dependence on Proton Energy. Materials, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/ma16051978"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e10","DOI":"10.14440\/jbm.2014.36","article-title":"Advanced Methods of Microscope Control Using \u03bcManager Software","volume":"1","author":"Edelstein","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Biol. Methods"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"357","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-020-2649-2","article-title":"Array Programming with NumPy","volume":"585","author":"Harris","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"261","DOI":"10.1038\/s41592-019-0686-2","article-title":"SciPy 1.0: Fundamental Algorithms for Scientific Computing in Python","volume":"17","author":"Virtanen","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nat. Methods"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"90","DOI":"10.1109\/MCSE.2007.55","article-title":"Matplotlib: A 2D Graphics Environment","volume":"9","author":"Hunter","year":"2007","journal-title":"Comput. Sci. Eng."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1469","DOI":"10.1016\/j.radmeas.2010.06.020","article-title":"Facility for Proton Radiotherapy of Eye Cancer at IFJ PAN in Krak\u00f3w","volume":"45","author":"Olko","year":"2010","journal-title":"Radiat. Meas."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4","DOI":"10.1080\/10619127.2024.2336422","article-title":"The Proton Therapy and Research Cyclotron Facilities at the IFJ PAN in Krak\u00f3w","volume":"34","author":"Maj","year":"2024","journal-title":"Nucl. Phys. News"},{"key":"ref_44","unstructured":"Rydygier, M. (2016). Obrazowanie Wi\u0105zki Proton\u00f3w Na Potrzeby Radioterapii w Instytucie Fizyki J\u0105drowej PAN [Imaging of the Proton Beam for Radiotherapy at the Institute of Nuclear Physics PAS]. [Ph.D. Thesis, Institute of Nuclear Physics, Polish Academy of Sciences]. (In Polish)."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"683","DOI":"10.1515\/nuka-2015-0106","article-title":"Studies of Scintillator Response to 60 MeV Protons in a Proton Beam Imaging System","volume":"60","author":"Rydygier","year":"2015","journal-title":"Nukleonika"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"185301","DOI":"10.1088\/1402-4896\/ae6403","article-title":"Characterisation of a Novel Optically Stimulated Luminescence Film Dosimeter for Radiotherapy in Particle Beams","volume":"101","author":"Caprioli","year":"2026","journal-title":"Phys. Scr."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"83","DOI":"10.1016\/j.optmat.2016.01.038","article-title":"Photostimulated Luminescence Properties of Neutron Image Plates","volume":"59","author":"Popov","year":"2016","journal-title":"Opt. Mater."}],"container-title":["Materials"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1996-1944\/19\/13\/2751\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,2]],"date-time":"2026-07-02T04:48:05Z","timestamp":1782967685000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1996-1944\/19\/13\/2751"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,27]]},"references-count":47,"journal-issue":{"issue":"13","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,7]]}},"alternative-id":["ma19132751"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ma19132751","relation":{},"ISSN":["1996-1944"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1996-1944","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,27]]}}}