{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,30]],"date-time":"2026-07-30T13:18:56Z","timestamp":1785417536444,"version":"3.56.0"},"reference-count":26,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"13","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,1]],"date-time":"2026-07-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1782864000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Anhui Fengyang Huaihe Glass Co., Ltd","award":["882197"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["882197"]}]},{"name":"the Joint Postgraduate Training Demonstration Base of Anhui Science and Technology University and Anhui Fengyang Huaihe Glass Co., Ltd.","award":["2025Xyjslhpysfjd001"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2025Xyjslhpysfjd001"]}]},{"award":["2025Xyjslhpysfjd001"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2025Xyjslhpysfjd001"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/01pn91c28","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Materials"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Physical tempering is widely used to enhance the mechanical strength and thermal stability of glassware. Traditional numerical studies commonly adopt the uniform heat transfer coefficient assumption, which significantly deviates from the actual non-uniform jet cooling conditions, especially for glassware with complex three-dimensional curved surfaces. In this work, a fluid\u2013thermal\u2013structure sequential coupling numerical model for low-borosilicate glassware was developed using STAR-CCM+. The Realizable k-\u03b5 turbulence model, temperature-dependent thermophysical properties of glass and air, and transient non-uniform convective heat transfer boundaries were employed. Flow characteristics, heat transfer behavior, and residual stress distribution during air cooling were systematically investigated. The simulation results were verified using a polarizing stress instrument. Results indicate that obvious flow separation and vortices occur at the curved regions, resulting in highly non-uniform heat transfer. Temperature uniformity first decreases and then rebounds, while stress uniformity finally stabilizes above 90%. The through-thickness stress exhibits a parabolic profile with surface compression and internal tension. The maximum relative error between simulation and experiment is below 6%, demonstrating the reasonable engineering accuracy of the sequential coupling framework. Ultimately, these numerical observations quantify the fluid\u2013thermal\u2013structural interactions and underscore the critical importance of integrating realistic non-uniform aerodynamic boundaries.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ma19132794","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,1]],"date-time":"2026-07-01T08:19:02Z","timestamp":1782893942000},"page":"2794","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Fluid\u2013Thermal\u2013Structure Coupled Analysis on the Tempering Characteristics of Glassware During Air Cooling"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"19","author":[{"given":"Kang","family":"An","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Intelligent Manufacturing, Anhui Science and Technology University, Chuzhou 239000, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Hao","family":"Zheng","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Intelligent Manufacturing, Anhui Science and Technology University, Chuzhou 239000, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Chi","family":"Qin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Intelligent Manufacturing, Anhui Science and Technology University, Chuzhou 239000, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Pengfei","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Intelligent Manufacturing, Anhui Science and Technology University, Chuzhou 239000, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yajing","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Intelligent Manufacturing, Anhui Science and Technology University, Chuzhou 239000, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Wenbin","family":"Dong","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Intelligent Manufacturing, Anhui Science and Technology University, Chuzhou 239000, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,1]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"145","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-706705-6.50010-2","article-title":"Thermal tempering of glass","volume":"5","author":"Gardon","year":"1980","journal-title":"Glass Sci. 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