{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,30]],"date-time":"2026-07-30T16:37:56Z","timestamp":1785429476636,"version":"3.56.0"},"reference-count":42,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"14","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,8]],"date-time":"2026-07-08T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1783468800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"MICS project (Made in Italy\u2014Circular and Sustainable) Extended Partnership"},{"name":"European Union Next-GenerationEU","award":["D.D. 1551.11-10-2022"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["D.D. 1551.11-10-2022"]}]},{"name":"European Union Next-GenerationEU","award":["PE00000004"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PE00000004"]}]},{"award":["D.D. 1551.11-10-2022"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["D.D. 1551.11-10-2022"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/019w4f821","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"award":["PE00000004"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PE00000004"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/019w4f821","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Materials"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The optimization and the engineering development of additive manufacturing (AM) products both require accurate, non-destructive techniques to extract their mechanical performances. The Instrumented Indentation Test (IIT) has such a potential, although it currently lacks standard procedures that are suitable for analyzing materials which are affected by internal residual stress (RS). Additionally, nanoindentation testing suffers from the presence of indentation size effects (ISE), which hamper the possibility of correlating the measured mechanical performance at different indentation depths or peak loads using the standard indentation hardness (HIT) and modulus (EIT). This paper presents a novel IIT methodology that is based on new indentation parameters, namely the loading stiffness rate (LSR) and the rate-derived hardness (HR), which are then used to assign the desired mechanical performances of an L-PBF 316L austenitic stainless-steel alloy obtained via multiload\/multiscale IIT strategy. The mean values of LSR, HR, HIT, and EIT on the macroscale were 57.3 \u00b1 1.4 GPa, 2.33 \u00b1 0.059 GPa, 2.41 \u00b1 0.13 GPa, and 201 \u00b1 7.8 GPa, respectively, whereas on the nanoscale they were 56.1 \u00b1 5.1 GPa, 2.30 \u00b1 0.21 GPa, 3.00 \u00b1 0.36 GPa, and 219 \u00b1 24 GPa, respectively. Unlike the standard HIT, the new indentation parameters of the nano- and macro-IITs are within the standard deviation, proving their ISE-free property. The obtained EIT was slightly higher than the reference Young\u2019s modulus (~190 GPa) of the 316L stainless steel. The loading secant stiffness versus depth plot can be used to assess the susceptibility of RS to relax during indentation, which is an important performance factor for the engineering design of AM components. The successful correlation that has been found between electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD) analysis (in terms of crystal anisotropy, grain size, and dislocation density) and nanoindentation testing at three subregions of the core zone of the investigated deposit confirms the validity of the proposed methodology. The proposed methodology is a step towards the full determination of the three Ps, that is, process, properties, and performance of advanced AM products.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ma19142932","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,8]],"date-time":"2026-07-08T16:16:18Z","timestamp":1783527378000},"page":"2932","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Correlation Between Microstructure and Mechanical Performance of an L-PBF 316L Alloy with an ISE-Free Parameter"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"19","author":[{"given":"Giovanni","family":"Maizza","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Applied Science and Technology, Politecnico di Torino, 10129 Torino, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0000-2324-089X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ahmad Atef Abdullatef","family":"Hamed","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Industrial Engineering, University of Rome \u201cTor Vergata\u201d, 00133 Rome, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0008-8565-9141","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Alberto","family":"Albanese","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Applied Science and Technology, Politecnico di Torino, 10129 Torino, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2955-6518","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Maria Jos\u00e9","family":"Marques","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Porto, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal"},{"name":"Department of Physics, University of Coimbra, CFisUC, 3004-516 Coimbra, Portugal"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,8]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"681","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jmrt.2022.07.085","article-title":"On the Current Research Progress of Metallic Materials Fabricated by Laser Powder Bed Fusion Process: A Review","volume":"20","author":"Elkatatny","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Mater. Res. Technol."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"D\u2019Andrea, D. (2023). Additive Manufacturing of AISI 316L Stainless Steel: A Review. Metals, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/met13081370"},{"key":"ref_3","first-page":"81","article-title":"316L Stainless Steel Mechanical and Tribological Behavior\u2014A Comparison between Selective Laser Melting, Hot Pressing and Conventional Casting","volume":"16","author":"Bartolomeu","year":"2017","journal-title":"Addit. Manuf."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"63","DOI":"10.1038\/nmat5021","article-title":"Additively Manufactured Hierarchical Stainless Steels with High Strength and Ductility","volume":"17","author":"Wang","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nat. Mater."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Peyre, P., and Charkaluk, \u00c9. (2023). Additive Manufacturing of Metal Alloys 2: Microstructures, Post-Processing and Use Properties, John Wiley & Sons.","DOI":"10.1002\/9781394229055"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"506","DOI":"10.1007\/s11661-024-07644-w","article-title":"Additive-Manufacturing-Induced Cell Structure in Stainless Steel 316L: 3D Morphology and Formation Mechanism","volume":"56","author":"Wang","year":"2025","journal-title":"Met. Mater. Trans. A"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yadroitsev, I., Yadroitsava, I., du Plessis, A., and MacDonald, E. (2021). 9\u2014Residual Stress in Laser Powder Bed Fusion. Fundamentals of Laser Powder Bed Fusion of Metals, Elsevier. Additive Manufacturing Materials and Technologies.","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-824090-8.00024-X"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Xie, D., Lv, F., Yang, Y., Shen, L., Tian, Z., Shuai, C., Chen, B., and Zhao, J. (2022). A Review on Distortion and Residual Stress in Additive Manufacturing. Chin. J. Mech. Eng. Addit. Manuf. Front., 1.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cjmeam.2022.100039"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ge\u013eatko, M., Hatala, M., Botko, F., and Vand\u017eura, R. (2024). Residual Stress Evaluation in L-PBF-Produced SS 316L Specimens. Materials, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/ma17102270"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Maizza, G., Hafeez, F., Varone, A., and Montanari, R. (2024). Nanoscale and Tensile-like Properties by an Instrumented Indentation Test on PBF-LB SS 316L Steel. Materials, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/ma17010255"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2014","DOI":"10.1007\/s11661-019-05139-7","article-title":"Anisotropic Mechanical Behavior of Additive Manufactured AISI 316L Steel","volume":"50","author":"Im","year":"2019","journal-title":"Met. Mater. Trans. A"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110016","DOI":"10.1016\/j.matchar.2019.110016","article-title":"Effect of Process Parameters on the Microstructure, Tensile Strength and Productivity of 316L Parts Produced by Laser Powder Bed Fusion","volume":"159","author":"Leicht","year":"2020","journal-title":"Mater. Charact."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"140660","DOI":"10.1016\/j.msea.2020.140660","article-title":"Effects of Manufacturing Parameters and Mechanical Post-Processing on Stainless Steel 316L Processed by Laser Powder Bed Fusion","volume":"802","author":"Afkhami","year":"2021","journal-title":"Mater. Sci. Eng. A"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"395","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijplas.2019.05.009","article-title":"Tensile Properties, Strain Rate Sensitivity, and Activation Volume of Additively Manufactured 316L Stainless Steels","volume":"120","author":"Li","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int. J. Plast."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Maizza, G., Hafeez, F., Varone, A., and Montanari, R. (2025). On the Mechanical Performance of an L-PBF 316l Part Using the Performance-Line Instrumented Indentation Test (PL-IIT). Materials, 18.","DOI":"10.3390\/ma18071462"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111047","DOI":"10.1016\/j.matchar.2021.111047","article-title":"Nanoindentation and Electron Backscatter Diffraction Mapping in Laser Powder Bed Fusion of Stainless Steel 316L","volume":"174","author":"Uddin","year":"2021","journal-title":"Mater. Charact."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kurdi, A., Tabbakh, T., and Basak, A.K. (2023). Microstructural and Nanoindentation Investigation on the Laser Powder Bed Fusion Stainless Steel 316L. Materials, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/ma16175933"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9827","DOI":"10.1007\/s10853-025-10995-3","article-title":"Instrumented Micro\/Macroindentation of Porosity Defects in Laser Powder Bed Fusion 316L Stainless Steel","volume":"60","author":"Weaver","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Mater. Sci."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"910","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jallcom.2018.01.098","article-title":"Investigation of Effects of Process Parameters on Microstructure and Hardness of SLM Manufactured SS316L","volume":"740","author":"Tucho","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Alloys Compd."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1616","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jmrt.2024.01.237","article-title":"The Effects of SLM Process Parameters on the Relative Density and Hardness of Austenitic Stainless Steel 316L","volume":"29","author":"Bakhtiarian","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Mater. Res. Technol."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"133014","DOI":"10.1016\/j.matlet.2022.133014","article-title":"The Role of Heat Treatments on Wear Behaviour of 316L Stainless Steel Produced by Additive Manufacturing","volume":"327","year":"2022","journal-title":"Mater. Lett."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"354","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mattod.2017.11.004","article-title":"Dislocation Network in Additive Manufactured Steel Breaks Strength\u2013Ductility Trade-Off","volume":"21","author":"Liu","year":"2018","journal-title":"Mater. Today"},{"key":"ref_23","unstructured":"(2015). Metallic Materials\u2014Instrumented Indentation Test for Hardness and Materials Parameters\u2014Part 1: Test Method (Standard No. ISO 14577-1: 2015)."},{"key":"ref_24","first-page":"787","article-title":"On the Origins and Mechanisms of the Indentation Size Effect","volume":"94","author":"Bull","year":"2003","journal-title":"Int. J. Mater. Res."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"135","DOI":"10.1515\/ijmr-1941-330305","article-title":"\u00dcber Die Mikroh\u00e4rte Der Feststoffe Im Grenzbereich Des Kick\u2019schen \u00c4hnlichkeitssatzes","volume":"33","author":"Bernhardt","year":"1941","journal-title":"Int. J. Mater. Res."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1019","DOI":"10.1002\/crat.200900385","article-title":"Review: Indentation Size Effect, Indentation Cracks and Microhardness Measurement of Brittle Crystalline Solids\u2014Some Basic Concepts and Trends","volume":"44","author":"Sangwal","year":"2009","journal-title":"Cryst. Res. Technol."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"593","DOI":"10.1016\/j.triboint.2005.03.019","article-title":"Predictive Model to Estimate the Stress\u2013Strain Curves of Bulk Metals Using Nanoindentation","volume":"39","author":"Pelletier","year":"2006","journal-title":"Tribol. Int."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"715","DOI":"10.1557\/s43577-025-00919-6","article-title":"Revealing New Depths of Information with Indentation Mapping of Microstructures","volume":"50","author":"Rossi","year":"2025","journal-title":"MRS Bull."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nobre, J.P., Marques, M.J., and Batista, A.C. (2025). Stress Determination by IHD in Additively Manufactured Austenitic Steel Samples: A Validation Study. Metals, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/met15050485"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"79","DOI":"10.1002\/pssa.2210420106","article-title":"Performance and Analysis of Recording Microhardness Tests","volume":"42","author":"Grau","year":"1977","journal-title":"Phys. Status Solidi (A)"},{"key":"ref_31","unstructured":"Kick, F. (1885). Das Gesetz Der Proportionalen Widerst\u00e4nde Und Seine Anwendungen: Nebst Versuchen \u00dcber Das Verhalten Verschiedener Materialien Bei Gleichen Form\u00e4nderungen Sowohl Unter Der Presse Als Dem Schlagwerk, A. Felix."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"497","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1151-2916.1987.tb05683.x","article-title":"Microhardness of SiO2 Glass in Various Environments","volume":"70","author":"Hirao","year":"1987","journal-title":"J. Am. Ceram. Soc."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1028","DOI":"10.1557\/JMR.1993.1028","article-title":"The Frictional Component of the Indentation Size Effect in Low Load Microhardness Testing","volume":"8","author":"Li","year":"1993","journal-title":"J. Mater. Res."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"209","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1004777607553","article-title":"An Energy-Balance Analysis for the Size Effect in Low-Load Hardness Testing","volume":"35","author":"Gong","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Mater. Sci."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tanaka, I., Tsuji, N., and Inui, H. (2022). Nanomechanical Characterization of Metallic Materials. The Plaston Concept: Plastic Deformation in Structural Materials, Springer Nature.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-981-16-7715-1"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"671","DOI":"10.1038\/nmeth.2089","article-title":"NIH Image to ImageJ: 25 Years of Image Analysis","volume":"9","author":"Schneider","year":"2012","journal-title":"Nat. Methods"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110309","DOI":"10.1016\/j.matchar.2020.110309","article-title":"Effect of Scan Rotation on the Microstructure Development and Mechanical Properties of 316L Parts Produced by Laser Powder Bed Fusion","volume":"163","author":"Leicht","year":"2020","journal-title":"Mater. Charact."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"186","DOI":"10.1016\/j.msea.2017.03.100","article-title":"Effects of Hot Isostatic Pressing on the Elastic Modulus and Tensile Properties of 316L Parts Made by Powder Bed Laser Fusion","volume":"693","author":"Lavery","year":"2017","journal-title":"Mater. Sci. Eng. A"},{"key":"ref_39","unstructured":"(2012). Electron Backscatter Diffraction (EBSD). Techniques for Studying Phase Transformations in Steels. Phase Transformations in Steels, Woodhead Publishing."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"67","DOI":"10.1080\/17452759.2015.1026045","article-title":"Evaluation of Residual Stress in Stainless Steel 316L and Ti6Al4V Samples Produced by Selective Laser Melting","volume":"10","author":"Yadroitsev","year":"2015","journal-title":"Virtual Phys. Prototyp."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Maizza, G., and Kwon, D. (2023). The Instrumented Indentation Test: An Aiding Tool for Material Science and Industry. Materials, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/ma16145078"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110074","DOI":"10.1016\/j.matchar.2019.110074","article-title":"Quantitative Multiscale Correlative Microstructure Analysis of Additive Manufacturing of Stainless Steel 316L Processed by Selective Laser Melting","volume":"160","author":"Godec","year":"2020","journal-title":"Mater. Charact."}],"container-title":["Materials"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1996-1944\/19\/14\/2932\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,8]],"date-time":"2026-07-08T16:21:32Z","timestamp":1783527692000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1996-1944\/19\/14\/2932"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,8]]},"references-count":42,"journal-issue":{"issue":"14","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,7]]}},"alternative-id":["ma19142932"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ma19142932","relation":{},"ISSN":["1996-1944"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1996-1944","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,8]]}}}