{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,21]],"date-time":"2026-08-21T08:28:10Z","timestamp":1787300890267,"version":"build-2736575974"},"reference-count":57,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"16","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,21]],"date-time":"2026-08-21T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1787270400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Materials"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The imperative to mitigate climate change has accelerated the development of Carbon Capture, Utilization, and Storage (CCUS) technologies, particularly CO2 hydrogenation into high-value chemicals and alternative fuels. This work evaluates the fundamental thermodynamic limitations and the primary directions of CO2 conversion, with a primary focus on methanation, alongside related pathways such as methanol synthesis and the reverse water-gas shift (RWGS) reaction. To overcome the high kinetic barriers of CO2 activation, various catalytic systems are analyzed. While noble metal catalysts exhibit high catalytic performance, nickel-based catalysts serve as a viable and cost-effective alternative. To overcome nickel\u2019s susceptibility to thermal sintering and coking, advanced bimetallic and multimetallic formulations are being developed to enhance structural stability and selectivity. These advancements are crucial for producing Synthetic Natural Gas (SNG) and sustainable aviation fuels (SAF). Ultimately, the objective of this comprehensive review is to systematically summarize recent advancements in catalyst design, critically analyze the advantages and fundamental bottlenecks of distinct catalytic systems, and outline prospective paths for the efficient industrial-scale production of sustainable alternative fuels.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ma19163541","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,21]],"date-time":"2026-08-21T08:14:01Z","timestamp":1787300041000},"page":"3541","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Catalytic Hydrogenation of CO2 to Alternative Fuels: A Review of Methanation and Related Pathways"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"19","author":[{"given":"Kornelia","family":"Nejranowska","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Energy and Fuels, AGH University of Krakow, 30-059 Krakow, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3782-8763","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Agnieszka","family":"Szymaszek-Wawryca","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Energy and Fuels, AGH University of Krakow, 30-059 Krakow, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6769-2895","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Monika","family":"Motak","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Energy and Fuels, AGH University of Krakow, 30-059 Krakow, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,21]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"124161","DOI":"10.1016\/j.watres.2025.124161","article-title":"Assessing Climate Change Impact on Watershed Hydrological Processes and Stream Temperature by Considering CO2 Emissions","volume":"286","author":"Zhang","year":"2025","journal-title":"Water Res."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tataru-Farmus, R.E., Harja, M., Tonucci, L., Coccia, F., Ciulla, M., Lazar, L., Soreanu, G., and Cretescu, I. (2025). Green CO2 Capture from Flue Gas Using Potassium Carbonate Solutions Promoted with Amino Acid Salts. Clean Technol., 7.","DOI":"10.3390\/cleantechnol7040099"},{"key":"ref_3","first-page":"100530","article-title":"Activation and Utilization of Tailings as CO2 Mineralization Feedstock and Supplementary Cementitious Materials: A Critical Review","volume":"24","author":"Li","year":"2023","journal-title":"Mater. Today Sustain."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100720","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cogsc.2022.100720","article-title":"Recent Progress and Challenges in Heterogeneous CO2 Catalytic Activation","volume":"39","author":"Chen","year":"2023","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Green Sustain. Chem."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"137262","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fuel.2025.137262","article-title":"Phyllosilicates-Derived Catalysts for CO2 Conversion","volume":"407","author":"Chen","year":"2026","journal-title":"Fuel"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107624","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jct.2026.107624","article-title":"Thermodynamic Analysis and Kinetics Studies of CO2 Hydrogenation to Alcohols by Reverse Water-Gas Shift and Fischer-Tropsch Reactions","volume":"214","author":"Felgueiras","year":"2026","journal-title":"J. Chem. Thermodyn."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"168153","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cej.2025.168153","article-title":"Achieving Nearly 100% CO2 Conversion via CaCO3-carbon Reverse Boudouard Reaction in an Integrated CO2 Capture and Utilization Process Using Carbon as the Reducing Agent (C-ICCU)","volume":"522","author":"Zhao","year":"2025","journal-title":"Chem. Eng. J."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"133554","DOI":"10.1016\/j.energy.2024.133554","article-title":"Optimization of Power to Gas System with Cooled Reactor for CO2 Methanation: Start-up and Shut-down Tests with Ru-Based and Ni-Based Kinetics","volume":"312","author":"Colelli","year":"2024","journal-title":"Energy"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19051","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijhydene.2022.04.089","article-title":"Role of Atomic Hydrogen Supply on the Onset of CO2 Methanation over La\u2013Ni Based Hydrogen Storage Alloys Studied by in-Situ Approach","volume":"47","author":"Sawahara","year":"2022","journal-title":"Int. J. Hydrogen Energy"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100411","DOI":"10.1016\/j.grets.2026.100411","article-title":"Recent Advances in Cu-Ni-Based Catalysts for CO2 Hydrogenation to Methanol: Effects of Morphology, Synthesis Methods, and Supports","volume":"4","author":"Amaturrahim","year":"2026","journal-title":"Green Technol. Sustain."},{"key":"ref_11","first-page":"101066","article-title":"Recent Advances in Supported Metal Catalysts for CO2 Methanation: Mechanisms, Materials Design, and the Promise of Perovskite-Based Supports","volume":"27","author":"Zhang","year":"2025","journal-title":"Energy Convers. Manag. X"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"138005","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fuel.2025.138005","article-title":"Recent Advances in CO2-Free Hydrogen Production through Catalytic Methane Pyrolysis: A Comprehensive Review on Iron-Based Catalysts","volume":"411","author":"Wang","year":"2026","journal-title":"Fuel"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20251087","DOI":"10.1016\/S1872-5813(25)60604-9","article-title":"Recent Advances in Carbon-Based Materials for CO2 Capture and Utilization","volume":"54","author":"Fu","year":"2026","journal-title":"J. Fuel Chem. Technol."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"141258","DOI":"10.1016\/j.energy.2026.141258","article-title":"Investigating CO2 Hydrogenation to Methanol in a Water-Selective Membrane Reactor Considering Multiscale Dual-Porosity Transport Effects","volume":"355","author":"Xu","year":"2026","journal-title":"Energy"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"153830","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijhydene.2026.153830","article-title":"CO2-to-Methanol Conversion through Catalytic Hydrogenation: Mechanistic Insights and Microkinetic Modeling on Zirconia-Promoted Cu\/ZnO\/Al2O3 Catalyst","volume":"217","author":"Arabahmadi","year":"2026","journal-title":"Int. J. Hydrogen Energy"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"121044","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jece.2026.121044","article-title":"A Review of Catalyst Support for CO2 Hydrogenation to Methanol","volume":"14","author":"Li","year":"2026","journal-title":"J. Environ. Chem. Eng."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110099","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nanoen.2024.110099","article-title":"Advancements in Electrochemical Methanol Synthesis from CO2: Mechanisms and Catalyst Developments","volume":"130","author":"Lee","year":"2024","journal-title":"Nano Energy"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"89","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jechem.2026.02.001","article-title":"Inducing the Stable Cu0-OV-Cu+ Active Center at the Interface of Cu\/Zn Catalysts via Doped Cr to Achieve High Yields of Methanol in CO2 Hydrogenation","volume":"117","author":"Ye","year":"2026","journal-title":"J. Energy Chem."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"152146","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijhydene.2025.152146","article-title":"Stability of Cu-Based Catalysts for CO2 Hydrogenation to Methanol","volume":"188","author":"Jiang","year":"2025","journal-title":"Int. J. Hydrogen Energy"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e202300679","DOI":"10.1002\/cctc.202300679","article-title":"CO2 Hydrogenation to CH3OH over Cu-Based Catalysts: Primary and Side Reactions","volume":"15","author":"Zhao","year":"2023","journal-title":"ChemCatChem"},{"key":"ref_21","first-page":"100271","article-title":"Bimetallic NiSn Supported on Mesoporous Carbon as an Efficient Catalyst for Selective Methanol Synthesis from CO2","volume":"8","author":"Dwiningtyas","year":"2025","journal-title":"Carbon Resour. Convers."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"124","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jtice.2018.06.020","article-title":"Methanol Formation from Carbon Dioxide Hydrogenation Using Cu\/ZnO\/Al2O3 Catalyst","volume":"98","author":"Lo","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Taiwan Inst. Chem. Eng."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"133442","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fuel.2024.133442","article-title":"Techno-Economic Assessment of Modified Fischer-Tropsch Synthesis Process for Direct CO2 Conversion into Jet Fuel","volume":"381","author":"Han","year":"2025","journal-title":"Fuel"},{"key":"ref_24","first-page":"100154","article-title":"Recent Advances in Mechanistic Pathways and Catalyst Architecture for the Synthesis of Sustainable Aviation Fuel from CO2","volume":"7","author":"Guchhait","year":"2025","journal-title":"Sustain. Chem. Clim. Action"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"121140","DOI":"10.1016\/j.enconman.2026.121140","article-title":"Tandem Catalytic Conversion of Carbon Dioxide into Sustainable Aviation Fuel (SAF) for e-SAF Development","volume":"352","author":"Verma","year":"2026","journal-title":"Energy Convers. Manag."},{"key":"ref_26","first-page":"115881","article-title":"CO2 to Sustainable Aviation Fuel via RWGS and Fischer\u2013Tropsch: A Comprehensive Review on Catalysts, Kinetics, and Reactor Design","volume":"596","author":"Moulay","year":"2026","journal-title":"Mol. Catal."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"151716","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cej.2024.151716","article-title":"Boosted Bio-Jet Production: Unveiling the Potential of a One-Stage Concurrent Process of Deoxygenation\/Upgrading versus Two-Stage Sequential Processes Using Pt\/Cl-Al2O3@Ni\/ZSM-5 Catalysts","volume":"490","author":"Hanafi","year":"2024","journal-title":"Chem. Eng. J."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"121867","DOI":"10.1016\/j.enconman.2026.121867","article-title":"Techno-Economic and Life Cycle Assessment of Fischer-Tropsch and Methanol-to-Jet Processes to Produce SAF from Captured Carbon Dioxide and Green Hydrogen","volume":"366","author":"Licastro","year":"2026","journal-title":"Energy Convers. Manag."},{"key":"ref_29","first-page":"101683","article-title":"Bayesian Optimization Guides the Discovery of High-Performance Catalysts for Direct CO2-to-Jet-Fuel Conversion","volume":"6","author":"Santos","year":"2026","journal-title":"Chem. Catal."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"309","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijhydene.2025.03.060","article-title":"Formation of Oxygen Vacancies and Its Role by Yttrium-Promoted Method of Ni\/CeO2 for Low-Temperature CO2 Methanation","volume":"119","author":"Lee","year":"2025","journal-title":"Int. J. Hydrogen Energy"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2097","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jre.2025.12.019","article-title":"Hydrogen-Driven Metal-Support Interaction in Ni-CeO2 Catalysts Boosting Low-Temperature CO2 Methanation","volume":"44","author":"Zhao","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Rare Earths"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103225","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcou.2025.103225","article-title":"Net-Zero Sustainable Aviation Fuel (SAF) Production via CO2 Hydrogenation in Low-Temperature Fischer-Tropsch Synthesis: Process Design and Alternatives","volume":"102","author":"Vaquerizo","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. CO2 Util."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"138643","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fuel.2026.138643","article-title":"Exploring Alternative Internal Gas Recirculating Designs of Multi-Stage Adiabatic Reactors for Direct CO2 Methanation from Thermodynamic Insights","volume":"417","author":"Hsiao","year":"2026","journal-title":"Fuel"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"120902","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apcata.2026.120902","article-title":"Catalysts Fe-Cu-Ce-Al Prepared by Sequential and Simultaneous Impregnation for the Reverse Water-Gas Shift Reaction (RWGS)","volume":"717","author":"Souza","year":"2026","journal-title":"Appl. Catal. A Gen."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103226","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcou.2025.103226","article-title":"Thermodynamic Analysis of Methanation for Power-to-Gas Applications: Impact of In-Situ Water Removal on Performances and Heat Release","volume":"102","author":"Acierno","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. CO2 Util."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12586","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijhydene.2014.06.093","article-title":"Coke Deactivation of Ni and Co Catalysts in Ethanol Steam Reforming at Mild Temperatures in a Fluidized Bed Reactor","volume":"39","author":"Vicente","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. J. Hydrogen Energy"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1075","DOI":"10.1039\/D5YA00015G","article-title":"Unlocking Catalytic Longevity: A Critical Review of Catalyst Deactivation Pathways and Regeneration Technologies","volume":"4","author":"Anekwe","year":"2025","journal-title":"Energy Adv."},{"key":"ref_38","first-page":"114133","article-title":"Supported Noble Metal-Based Catalysts for Thermal CO2 Hydrogenation to CO","volume":"560","author":"Dong","year":"2024","journal-title":"Mol. Catal."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/S1872-2067(24)60090-2","article-title":"Advances in the Studies of the Supported Ruthenium Catalysts for CO2 Methanation","volume":"63","author":"Shen","year":"2024","journal-title":"Chin. J. Catal."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"63","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apcata.2017.05.026","article-title":"Hydrogenation of CO2 over Supported Noble Metal Catalysts","volume":"542","author":"Panagiotopoulou","year":"2017","journal-title":"Appl. Catal. A Gen."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"153004","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cej.2024.153004","article-title":"Boosting CO2 Methanation Activity by Tuning Ni Crystal Plane and Oxygen Vacancy in Ni\/CeO2 Catalyst","volume":"494","author":"Liu","year":"2024","journal-title":"Chem. Eng. J."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"123718","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ces.2026.123718","article-title":"Deciphering the Dual Role of Iron in Ni-Fe\/Al2O3 Catalysts for CO2 Methanation: From Synergistic Alloying to FeOx Encapsulation","volume":"328","author":"Yuan","year":"2026","journal-title":"Chem. Eng. Sci."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"164018","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apsusc.2025.164018","article-title":"Dual Role of Iron in Alumina Supported Bimetallic Nickel Catalysts for CO2 Methanation","volume":"711","author":"Gac","year":"2025","journal-title":"Appl. Surf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_44","first-page":"7860","article-title":"Regulating CO2 Hydrogenation Pathways with High-Entropy Catalysts","volume":"16","author":"Zhou","year":"2026","journal-title":"ACS Catal."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"136274","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fuel.2025.136274","article-title":"Non-Noble Metals Promoted MOF-Derived CuZn Catalysts for Low-Temperature CO2 Hydrogenation to Methanol","volume":"404","author":"Threerattanakulpron","year":"2026","journal-title":"Fuel"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"138738","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fuel.2026.138738","article-title":"Chelation Driven Interface Engineering of Cu-Zn\/ZrO2 Catalysts for Low Barrier CO2 Hydrogenation to Methanol","volume":"418","author":"Alyami","year":"2026","journal-title":"Fuel"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"126979","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apcatb.2026.126979","article-title":"Pressure-Driven Reconstruction of Single-Atom Ni-O-K Interface for near-Equilibrium CO2 Hydrogenation","volume":"397","author":"Wang","year":"2026","journal-title":"Appl. Catal. B Environ. Energy"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"124646","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apcatb.2024.124646","article-title":"Nanostructure of Indium-Driven Nickel Catalysts Break CO2 Hydrogenation Preference","volume":"361","author":"Zhang","year":"2025","journal-title":"Appl. Catal. B Environ. Energy"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"858","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jes.2024.10.024","article-title":"Catalytic Oxidation of Volatile Organic Compounds over Supported Noble Metal and Single Atom Catalysts: A Review","volume":"155","author":"Zhang","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Environ. Sci."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tsiotsias, A.I., Charisiou, N.D., Yentekakis, I.V., and Goula, M.A. (2021). Bimetallic Ni-Based Catalysts for CO2 Methanation: A Review. Nanomaterials, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/nano11010028"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"140138","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcis.2026.140138","article-title":"Metal-Support Interface Configuration Dictates the CO2 Hydrogenation Pathway on Nickel-Based Catalysts","volume":"713","author":"Li","year":"2026","journal-title":"J. Colloid Interface Sci."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"123245","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apcatb.2023.123245","article-title":"Ni-Based Hydrotalcite-Derived Catalysts for Enhanced CO2 Methanation: Thermal Tuning of the Metal-Support Interaction","volume":"340","author":"Ren","year":"2024","journal-title":"Appl. Catal. B"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"140478","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcis.2026.140478","article-title":"Thermally Cured Nickel-Based Catalysts Enabling High-Activity Plasma-Assisted CO2 Hydrogenation","volume":"718","author":"Zhang","year":"2026","journal-title":"J. Colloid Interface Sci."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"162067","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cej.2025.162067","article-title":"Chemical Looping of Catalytic Methane Decomposition with Reverse Boudouard Reaction Using Dual Functional Ni-FeOx Nanoparticle Cluster for CO2-Negative H2 Production","volume":"511","author":"Wu","year":"2025","journal-title":"Chem. Eng. J."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2590","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chempr.2024.06.022","article-title":"Engineering Ni-Co Bimetallic Interfaces for Ambient Plasma-Catalytic CO2 Hydrogenation to Methanol","volume":"10","author":"Wang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Chem"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"117689","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jece.2025.117689","article-title":"Ni\u2013Ru Bimetallic Catalysts Derived from Ni1\u2212XRuxTiO3 Perovskite for Photothermal CO2 Methanation","volume":"13","author":"Li","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Environ. Chem. Eng."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"125675","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apcatb.2025.125675","article-title":"Role of Electronic Modulation of Ni-Pr Bimetallic Catalyst for Low-Temperature CO2 Methanation","volume":"379","author":"Ju","year":"2025","journal-title":"Appl. Catal. B Environ. Energy"}],"container-title":["Materials"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1996-1944\/19\/16\/3541\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,21]],"date-time":"2026-08-21T08:20:05Z","timestamp":1787300405000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1996-1944\/19\/16\/3541"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,21]]},"references-count":57,"journal-issue":{"issue":"16","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,8]]}},"alternative-id":["ma19163541"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ma19163541","relation":{},"ISSN":["1996-1944"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1996-1944","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,21]]}}}