{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,31]],"date-time":"2026-08-31T05:19:31Z","timestamp":1788153571406,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":66,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"17","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,28]],"date-time":"2026-08-28T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1787875200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Materials"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Bacterial self-healing concrete has emerged as a bio-based strategy to enhance the durability of cementitious materials and reduce the environmental impact associated with premature infrastructure deterioration. Its functional principle relies on microbially induced calcium carbonate precipitation (MICP), through which bacterial metabolism promotes CaCO3 deposition within cracks. However, self-healing efficiency cannot be explained solely by mineral precipitation capacity. Concrete is a restrictive microbial environment characterized by alkalinity, desiccation, osmotic stress, nutrient limitation and physical confinement. Therefore, effective crack sealing requires a coordinated sequence involving bacterial survival, sporulation, germination, metabolic reactivation, biofilm-associated mineral nucleation and localized biomineralization. This integrative narrative review synthesizes mechanistic, material and biosafety evidence on bacterial self-healing concrete, focusing on spore-forming bacteria such as Bacillus subtilis and related taxa, including Paenibacillus. The evidence indicates that stress tolerance, germination signaling, calcium handling, biofilm establishment and stability, and encapsulation-mediated microenvironmental control are key determinants of performance, but remain insufficiently integrated into materials-oriented studies. Large-scale implementation also requires preventive assessment of strain persistence, genetic stability, horizontal gene transfer, environmental microbiome interactions and life-cycle exposure scenarios. Bacterial self-healing concrete should therefore be understood as a living or bioactive material system whose responsible development depends on the integration of microbiology, molecular biology, materials science, civil engineering, environmental risk assessment, occupational health, and public health.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ma19173661","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,31]],"date-time":"2026-08-31T04:24:03Z","timestamp":1788150243000},"page":"3661","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Molecular and Biosafety Perspectives of Bacterial Self-Healing Concrete: From Sporulation and Biomineralization to Public Health Implications"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"19","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5229-0810","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Cecilia","family":"Manrique-Sam","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Human Medicine, Universidad Cat\u00f3lica de Santa Mar\u00eda, Arequipa 04000, Peru"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ronel","family":"Rivas-Torres","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Human Medicine, Universidad Cat\u00f3lica de Santa Mar\u00eda, Arequipa 04000, Peru"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Alejandro","family":"Miranda-Pinto","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Human Medicine, Universidad Cat\u00f3lica de Santa Mar\u00eda, Arequipa 04000, Peru"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8565-6353","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Johany Cecilia","family":"Sanchez Guillen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Human Medicine, Universidad Cat\u00f3lica de Santa Mar\u00eda, Arequipa 04000, Peru"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sandra","family":"Apaza-Tosocahua","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Human Medicine, Universidad Cat\u00f3lica de Santa Mar\u00eda, Arequipa 04000, Peru"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Fernando","family":"Farf\u00e1n-Delgado","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Human Medicine, Universidad Cat\u00f3lica de Santa Mar\u00eda, Arequipa 04000, Peru"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,28]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"United Nations Environment Programme (2025). Global Status Report for Buildings and Construction 2024\/2025: Not Just Another Brick in the Wall, UNEP."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"International Energy Agency (2025). Breakthrough Agenda Report 2025: Cement and Concrete, IEA."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"174553","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2024.174553","article-title":"Advances in microbial self-healing concrete: A critical review of mechanisms, developments, and future directions","volume":"947","author":"Wong","year":"2024","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Omoregie, A.I., Wong, C.S., Rajasekar, A., Ling, J.H., Laiche, A.B., Basri, H.F., Sivakumar, G., and Ouahbi, T. (2025). Bio-based solutions for concrete infrastructure: A review of microbial-induced carbonate precipitation in crack healing. Buildings, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/buildings15071052"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2376","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jmrt.2024.01.261","article-title":"Microbial self-healing in concrete: A comprehensive exploration of bacterial viability, implementation techniques, and mechanical properties","volume":"29","author":"Javeed","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Mater. Res. Technol."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21906","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-025-06688-1","article-title":"Assessment of ecofriendly carbon capture using Bacillus subtilis induced calcium carbonate precipitation with focus on applications mechanisms and cost efficiency","volume":"15","author":"Danial","year":"2025","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7844","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-023-34837-x","article-title":"Effect of Bacillus subtilis on mechanical and self-healing properties in mortar with different crack widths and curing conditions","volume":"13","author":"Yamasamit","year":"2023","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"271","DOI":"10.3184\/003685003783238635","article-title":"Bacterial responses to alkaline stress","volume":"86","author":"Saito","year":"2003","journal-title":"Sci. Prog."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"uqac010","DOI":"10.1093\/femsml\/uqac010","article-title":"Antibiotic tolerance in environmentally stressed Bacillus subtilis: Physical barriers and induction of a viable but nonculturable state","volume":"3","author":"Morawska","year":"2022","journal-title":"Microlife"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e0075824","DOI":"10.1128\/mbio.00758-24","article-title":"Bacterial cell differentiation enables population level survival strategies","volume":"15","author":"Chong","year":"2024","journal-title":"mBio"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"500","DOI":"10.1089\/ast.2015.1419","article-title":"Germination of spores of astrobiologically relevant Bacillus species in high-salinity environments","volume":"16","author":"Nagler","year":"2016","journal-title":"Astrobiology"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"550","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mib.2003.10.001","article-title":"Spore germination","volume":"6","author":"Setlow","year":"2003","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"228","DOI":"10.1128\/JB.01450-06","article-title":"Bacillus subtilis gene cluster involved in calcium carbonate biomineralization","volume":"189","author":"Barabesi","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Bacteriol."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"214","DOI":"10.1186\/s12934-021-01704-1","article-title":"Genetic optimisation of bacteria-induced calcite precipitation in Bacillus subtilis","volume":"20","author":"Hoffmann","year":"2021","journal-title":"Microb. Cell Fact."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"168","DOI":"10.1186\/s12934-024-02437-7","article-title":"Microbially induced calcium carbonate precipitation through CO2 sequestration via an engineered Bacillus subtilis","volume":"23","author":"Gilmour","year":"2024","journal-title":"Microb. Cell Fact."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15031","DOI":"10.1038\/npjbiofilms.2015.31","article-title":"Spatio-temporal assembly of functional mineral scaffolds within microbial biofilms","volume":"2","author":"Suissa","year":"2016","journal-title":"npj Biofilms Microbiomes"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nbt.2019.11.002","article-title":"A brick in the wall: Discovering a novel mineral component of the biofilm extracellular matrix","volume":"56","year":"2020","journal-title":"New Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7133","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-021-27467-2","article-title":"Engineering Bacillus subtilis for the formation of a durable living biocomposite material","volume":"12","author":"Kang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"365","DOI":"10.1007\/s00253-019-10215-4","article-title":"Constraints on CaCO3 precipitation in superabsorbent polymer by aerobic bacteria","volume":"104","author":"Nielsen","year":"2020","journal-title":"Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"574","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tibtech.2020.10.009","article-title":"Engineered living materials: Taxonomies and emerging trends","volume":"39","author":"Srubar","year":"2021","journal-title":"Trends Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2295","DOI":"10.1021\/acssynbio.4c00259","article-title":"Toward practical applications of engineered living materials with advanced fabrication techniques","volume":"13","author":"Lu","year":"2024","journal-title":"ACS Synth. Biol."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e70164","DOI":"10.1111\/1751-7915.70164","article-title":"Bacterial species in engineered living materials: Strategies and future directions","volume":"18","author":"Wang","year":"2025","journal-title":"Microb. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"147173","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2021.147173","article-title":"Divergent bacterial transformation exerted by soil minerals","volume":"784","author":"Huang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_24","unstructured":"Convention on Biological Diversity (2000). Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety to the Convention on Biological Diversity."},{"key":"ref_25","unstructured":"European Parliament and Council (2001). Directive 2001\/18\/EC on the deliberate release into the environment of genetically modified organisms. Off. J. Eur. Communities, L106, 1\u201339."},{"key":"ref_26","unstructured":"European Parliament and Council (2009). Directive 2009\/41\/EC on the contained use of genetically modified micro-organisms. Off. J. Eur. Union, L125, 75\u201397."},{"key":"ref_27","unstructured":"World Health Organization (2020). Laboratory Biosafety Manual, WHO Press. [4th ed.]."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.1186\/s41073-019-0064-8","article-title":"SANRA\u2014A scale for the quality assessment of narrative review articles","volume":"4","author":"Baethge","year":"2019","journal-title":"Res. Integr. Peer Rev."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"n71","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.n71","article-title":"The PRISMA 2020 statement: An updated guideline for reporting systematic reviews","volume":"372","author":"Page","year":"2021","journal-title":"BMJ"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"467","DOI":"10.7326\/M18-0850","article-title":"PRISMA extension for scoping reviews: Checklist and explanation","volume":"169","author":"Tricco","year":"2018","journal-title":"Ann. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"25947","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-024-77339-0","article-title":"Evaluation of encapsulated Bacillus subtilis bio-mortars for use under acidic conditions","volume":"14","author":"Thongchom","year":"2024","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gul, S., and Shaheen, N. (2026). Influence of Bacillus subtilis-instigated calcite precipitation on damage progression and ionic transport. Materials, 19.","DOI":"10.3390\/ma19061153"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1898","DOI":"10.1111\/1462-2920.12438","article-title":"Adaptation of Bacillus subtilis carbon core metabolism to simultaneous nutrient limitation and osmotic challenge: A multi-omics perspective","volume":"16","author":"Kohlstedt","year":"2014","journal-title":"Environ. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"35","DOI":"10.1016\/S0065-2911(01)44011-2","article-title":"General stress response of Bacillus subtilis and other bacteria","volume":"44","author":"Hecker","year":"2001","journal-title":"Adv. Microb. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2513","DOI":"10.1128\/JB.182.9.2513-2519.2000","article-title":"Role of ger proteins in nutrient and nonnutrient triggering of spore germination in Bacillus subtilis","volume":"182","author":"Paidhungat","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Bacteriol."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5845","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-023-33070-w","article-title":"New non-ureolytic heterotrophic microbial induced carbonate precipitation for suppression of sand dune wind erosion","volume":"13","author":"Hemayati","year":"2023","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"888","DOI":"10.1111\/lam.13748","article-title":"High level of calcium carbonate precipitation achieved by mixed culture containing ureolytic and nonureolytic bacterial strains","volume":"75","author":"Harnpicharnchai","year":"2022","journal-title":"Lett. Appl. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"001687","DOI":"10.1099\/mic.0.001687","article-title":"Decoding the functional role of the calcium ATPase YloB in microbially induced calcite precipitation and sporulation in Solibacillus silvestris","volume":"172","author":"Seidel","year":"2026","journal-title":"Microbiology"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e0011421","DOI":"10.1128\/JB.00114-21","article-title":"Calcium prevents biofilm dispersion in Bacillus subtilis","volume":"203","author":"Nishikawa","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Bacteriol."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e0036725","DOI":"10.1128\/jb.00367-25","article-title":"Paenibacillus encodes a membrane-localized Spo0B","volume":"208","author":"Lin","year":"2026","journal-title":"J. Bacteriol."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Danev\u010di\u010d, T., Drago\u0161, A., Spacapan, M., Stefanic, P., Dogsa, I., and Mandic-Mulec, I. (2021). Surfactin facilitates horizontal gene transfer in Bacillus subtilis. Front. Microbiol., 12.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2021.657407"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3457","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-021-23685-w","article-title":"Kin discrimination promotes horizontal gene transfer between unrelated strains in Bacillus subtilis","volume":"12","author":"Stefanic","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e0018122","DOI":"10.1128\/jb.00181-22","article-title":"Second-generation transfer mediates efficient propagation of ICEBs1 in biofilms","volume":"204","author":"Bourassa","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Bacteriol."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12352","DOI":"10.1093\/nar\/gkad1074","article-title":"Genome-wide transformation reveals extensive exchange across closely related Bacillus species","volume":"51","author":"Rathmann","year":"2023","journal-title":"Nucleic Acids Res."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1344","DOI":"10.1038\/s41396-020-00854-1","article-title":"Pervasive prophage recombination occurs during evolution of spore-forming Bacilli","volume":"15","author":"Priyadarshini","year":"2021","journal-title":"ISME J."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dong, L., Zhang, Z., Zhu, B., Li, S., He, Y., Lou, Y., Li, P., Zheng, H., Tian, Z., and Ma, X. (2022). Research on safety and compliance of imported microbial inoculants using high-throughput sequencing. Front. Med., 9.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmed.2022.963988"},{"key":"#cr-split#-ref_47.1","unstructured":"European Parliament and Council (2006). Regulation"},{"key":"#cr-split#-ref_47.2","unstructured":"(EC) No 1907\/2006 concerning the Registration, Evaluation, Authorisation and Restriction of Chemicals (REACH). Off. J. Eur. Union, L396, 1-849."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"157","DOI":"10.1038\/nrmicro2960","article-title":"Sticking together: Building a biofilm the Bacillus subtilis way","volume":"11","author":"Vlamakis","year":"2013","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rivas-Torres, B.R., Mendoza-Tejada, O.G., Gamarra-Tuco, R.F., Ita-Balta, Y., Farfan-Delgado, F., and Manrique-Sam, C. (2026). Effect of Bacillus subtilis and Paenibacillus polymyxa on the Compressive Strength and Self-Healing of Type IP Concrete. Materials, 19.","DOI":"10.3390\/ma19112277"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"739","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2958.2004.04440.x","article-title":"A master regulator for biofilm formation by Bacillus subtilis","volume":"55","author":"Kearns","year":"2005","journal-title":"Mol. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"532","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2011.06.054","article-title":"Use of silica gel or polyurethane immobilized bacteria for self-healing concrete","volume":"26","author":"Wang","year":"2012","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"763","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cemconcomp.2011.03.012","article-title":"Quantification of crack-healing in novel bacteria-based self-healing concrete","volume":"33","author":"Wiktor","year":"2011","journal-title":"Cem. Concr. Compos."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2936","DOI":"10.1128\/AEM.02524-08","article-title":"PCR-based method using propidium monoazide to distinguish viable from nonviable Bacillus subtilis spores","volume":"75","author":"Rawsthorne","year":"2009","journal-title":"Appl. Environ. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_54","unstructured":"Green Basilisk BV (2018). Material Safety Data Sheet (2018), Green Basilisk BV. Available online: https:\/\/basiliskconcrete.com."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"411","DOI":"10.1128\/jb.158.2.411-418.1984","article-title":"Replacement of the Bacillus subtilis subtilisin structural gene with an in vitro-derived deletion mutation","volume":"158","author":"Stahl","year":"1984","journal-title":"J. Bacteriol."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1511","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1365-2222.2000.00893.x","article-title":"Occupational asthma and allergy associated with the use of enzymes in the detergent industry\u2014A review of the epidemiology, toxicology and methods of prevention","volume":"30","author":"Schweigert","year":"2000","journal-title":"Clin. Exp. Allergy"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"325","DOI":"10.1128\/JCM.36.1.325-326.1998","article-title":"Recurrent septicemia in an immunocompromised patient due to probiotic strains of Bacillus subtilis","volume":"36","author":"Oggioni","year":"1998","journal-title":"J. Clin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2008","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(12)60235-9","article-title":"Silicosis","volume":"379","author":"Leung","year":"2012","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19","DOI":"10.1038\/s41392-023-01722-y","article-title":"Lung microbiome: New insights into the pathogenesis of respiratory diseases","volume":"9","author":"Zhou","year":"2024","journal-title":"Signal Transduct. Target. Ther."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"084006","DOI":"10.1088\/0964-1726\/25\/8\/084006","article-title":"Bacteria-based concrete: From concept to market","volume":"25","author":"Wiktor","year":"2016","journal-title":"Smart Mater. Struct."},{"key":"ref_61","unstructured":"European Parliament and Council (2000). Directive 2000\/54\/EC on the protection of workers from risks related to exposure to biological agents at work. Off. J. Eur. Communities, L262, 21\u201345."},{"key":"ref_62","unstructured":"Green Basilisk BV (2019). Concrete Healing Agent (HA)\u2014Product Data Sheet (2019), Green Basilisk BV. Available online: https:\/\/basiliskconcrete.com."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3350","DOI":"10.1128\/JB.01728-08","article-title":"Identification of a polymyxin synthetase gene cluster of Paenibacillus polymyxa and heterologous expression of the gene in Bacillus subtilis","volume":"191","author":"Choi","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Bacteriol."},{"key":"ref_64","unstructured":"Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) (2016). Respirable Crystalline Silica Standard, 29 CFR 1926.1153."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1229","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2958.2005.05020.x","article-title":"A major protein component of the Bacillus subtilis biofilm matrix","volume":"59","author":"Branda","year":"2006","journal-title":"Mol. Microbiol."}],"container-title":["Materials"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1996-1944\/19\/17\/3661\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,31]],"date-time":"2026-08-31T04:33:48Z","timestamp":1788150828000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1996-1944\/19\/17\/3661"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,28]]},"references-count":66,"journal-issue":{"issue":"17","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9]]}},"alternative-id":["ma19173661"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ma19173661","relation":{},"ISSN":["1996-1944"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1996-1944","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,28]]}}}