{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,7]],"date-time":"2026-10-07T18:47:06Z","timestamp":1791398826018,"version":"4.3.3"},"reference-count":53,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"18","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,17]],"date-time":"2026-09-17T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1789603200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft","award":["414265976"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["414265976"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/018mejw64","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"award":["414265976"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["414265976"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/018mejw64","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Materials"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Integrating Wire Arc Additive Manufacturing (WAAM) into the Selective Paste Intrusion (SPI) process enables the fully additive fabrication of reinforced concrete structures with complex geometries. Previous investigations have demonstrated that the thermal impact of the WAAM process can adversely affect the SPI process. Thus, dedicated cooling strategies are required. One proposed approach increases the vertical distance between the welding point and the particle bed by introducing a defined vertical protrusion of the reinforcement bar. This configuration may give rise to shadowing effects, here understood as a process-induced disturbance of material deposition in the vicinity of the protruding bar. Two distinct manifestations are considered in parallel. The first is a geometrically projected shadowed region within the particle bed, depending on bar diameter and inclination. The second is a layer-wise modification of the contact zone along the lower half of the bar surface within the bond length, largely independent of inclination. To isolate the geometric component from thermal effects, the present study focuses on controlled reinforcement configurations with constant vertical protrusion. Two hypotheses are tested: bond decreases with increasing bar diameter (H1), and, at constant diameter, with decreasing inclination angle (H2), the latter being the signature of the projected shadow. To assess these effects, reinforcement bars with a constant vertical protrusion of 40 mm and varying inclination angles were embedded into the particle bed, and concrete specimens were produced above them using the SPI process. Bar diameters of 8 mm, 16 mm, and 25 mm and inclination angles from 0\u00b0 to 90\u00b0 in 15\u00b0 increments were investigated systematically. Bond strength was determined using push-through tests derived from RILEM RC6, and the bond response was evaluated against both a quantitative measure of the projected shadowed area and a process-based indicator of the affected contact zone. The bar diameter dominates the bond response, most pronounced at the developed-interlock and capacity levels. The inclination angle produces no monotonic trend from 0\u00b0 to 90\u00b0, and individual angle contrasts remain largely within the experimental scatter. The projected shadowed area cannot consistently explain the observed behaviour and is at most a secondary factor, whereas the layer-wise contact-zone disturbance along the lower bar surface is the most probable interpretation of the data. The findings identify shadowing as a boundary condition for reinforcement integration in SPI: the observed bond reduction at the developed-interlock and capacity levels is attributed to the layer-wise contact-zone disturbance rather than to the projected shadowed area, an attribution that remains a hypothesis until the contact zone has been verified directly.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ma19183954","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,21]],"date-time":"2026-09-21T16:06:51Z","timestamp":1790006811000},"page":"3954","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Selective Paste Intrusion\u2014Shadowing Effects from Rebar Protrusion in the Particle Bed and Their Impact on Bond Strength"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"19","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0293-3392","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Alexander","family":"Stra\u00dfer","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Chair of Materials Science and Testing, Centre for Building Materials (cbm), School of Engineering and Design, Technical University of Munich, 85748 Garching, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"conceptualization","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"methodology","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"investigation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"data-curation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-original-draft","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5650-3825","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Thomas","family":"Kr\u00e4nkel","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Chair of Materials Science and Testing, Centre for Building Materials (cbm), School of Engineering and Design, Technical University of Munich, 85748 Garching, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"conceptualization","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-review-editing","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"supervision","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1214-3960","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Christoph","family":"Gehlen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Chair of Materials Science and Testing, Centre for Building Materials (cbm), School of Engineering and Design, Technical University of Munich, 85748 Garching, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"writing-review-editing","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"supervision","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"funding-acquisition","vocabulary":"credit"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,17]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"50","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cemconres.2018.05.018","article-title":"Particle-bed 3D printing in concrete construction\u2014Possibilities and challenges","volume":"112","author":"Lowke","year":"2018","journal-title":"Cem. 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