{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,22]],"date-time":"2026-09-22T05:03:46Z","timestamp":1790053426955,"version":"4.0.1"},"reference-count":36,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"18","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,19]],"date-time":"2026-09-19T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1789776000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","award":["42601258"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["42601258"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/01h0zpd94","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"award":["42601258"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["42601258"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/01h0zpd94","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"Wenzhou University of Technology","award":["ky202503"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["ky202503"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/03dd7qj98","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"award":["ky202503"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["ky202503"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/03dd7qj98","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"Qinghai Provincial Department of Transportation","award":["JG2026-39"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["JG2026-39"]}]},{"award":["JG2026-39"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["JG2026-39"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/00adyaq66","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"Qinghai Provincial Department of Science and Technology","award":["2026-ZJ-970Q"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2026-ZJ-970Q"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/03vz7b375","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"award":["2026-ZJ-970Q"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2026-ZJ-970Q"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/03vz7b375","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"Wenzhou Municipal Science and Technology Bureau","award":["ZS2023001"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["ZS2023001"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/02fr0s482","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"award":["ZS2023001"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["ZS2023001"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/02fr0s482","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Materials"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Bulk industrial solid wastes are promising materials for clay stabilization, but the independent performance of different waste types under identical conditions remains insufficiently understood. In this study, fly ash (FA), coal gangue (CG), and ground-granulated blast-furnace slag (GGBS) were independently incorporated into a low-liquid-limit clay matrix treated with sodium silicate. Waste dosages of 10%, 15%, and 20% and curing ages of 3, 7, and 28 days were investigated using unconfined compressive strength (UCS) tests. Representative 28-day specimens were further examined by X-ray diffraction (XRD) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The three systems exhibited distinct dosage- and age-dependent UCS responses, and strength did not increase monotonically with waste dosage. At 15% dosage, the 28-day UCS values of the FA, CG, and GGBS systems were 0.26, 0.26, and 0.29 MPa, respectively. XRD showed broadly similar crystalline phase assemblages, while SEM revealed differences in particle morphology and local surface deposits. The results provide a controlled comparison of the independent performance of FA, CG, and GGBS in clay stabilization under the investigated conditions.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ma19183978","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,21]],"date-time":"2026-09-21T17:23:17Z","timestamp":1790011397000},"page":"3978","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Comparative Strength Development and Microstructural Characteristics of Individual Industrial Solid Waste Systems Treated with Sodium Silicate"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"19","author":[{"given":"Zhifeng","family":"Ren","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Architecture and Energy Engineering, Wenzhou University of Technology, Wenzhou 325035, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"conceptualization","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"methodology","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"investigation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"data-curation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"formal-analysis","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"visualization","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-original-draft","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"project-administration","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"funding-acquisition","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"given":"Jiajie","family":"Tong","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Architecture and Energy Engineering, Wenzhou University of Technology, Wenzhou 325035, China"},{"name":"Zhejiang Xingchuang Environmental Protection Group Co., Ltd., Wenzhou 325035, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"formal-analysis","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"investigation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"data-curation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"visualization","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8688-2670","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Xiang","family":"Mao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Civil Engineering, Sun Yat-Sen University, Zhuhai 519082, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"conceptualization","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"methodology","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"formal-analysis","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"data-curation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-review-editing","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"supervision","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"given":"Jianhong","family":"Fang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Qinghai Research Institute of Transportation, Xining 810003, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"validation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"investigation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"resources","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-review-editing","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"given":"Long","family":"Han","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Qinghai Provincial Highway Bureau, Xining 810008, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"validation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"investigation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"resources","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"given":"Yifan","family":"Xiang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Zhejiang Xingchuang Environmental Protection Group Co., Ltd., Wenzhou 325035, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"investigation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"data-curation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"visualization","vocabulary":"credit"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,19]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115905","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecoenv.2023.115905","article-title":"A comprehensive review of toxicity of coal fly ash and its leachate in the ecosystem","volume":"269","author":"Chen","year":"2024","journal-title":"Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"136857","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2024.136857","article-title":"High-capacity utilization of coal gangue as supplementary cementitious material, geopolymer, and aggregate: A review","volume":"435","author":"Wu","year":"2024","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"157041","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2022.157041","article-title":"Application of iron and steel slags in mitigating greenhouse gas emissions: A review","volume":"844","author":"Chen","year":"2022","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Du, J., Ma, A., Wang, X., and Zheng, X. (2023). Review of the Preparation and Application of Porous Materials for Typical Coal-Based Solid Waste. Materials, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/ma16155434"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2106","DOI":"10.1007\/s12613-022-2538-9","article-title":"Preparation and hydration of industrial solid waste\u2014Cement blends: A review","volume":"29","author":"Zhang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Int. J. Miner. Metall. Mater."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"142457","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclepro.2024.142457","article-title":"Critical review for the potential analysis of material utilization from inorganic industrial solid waste","volume":"459","author":"Guo","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Clean. Prod."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Navaratnam, S., Tushar, Q., Jahan, I., and Zhang, G. (2023). Environmental Sustainability of Industrial Waste-Based Cementitious Materials: A Review, Experimental Investigation and Life-Cycle Assessment. Sustainability, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/su15031873"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"139087","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2024.139087","article-title":"Low-carbon cementitious materials: Scale-up potential, environmental impact and barriers","volume":"455","author":"Ahmad","year":"2024","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"136046","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2024.136046","article-title":"Cementitous material based stabilization of soft soils by stabilizer: Feasibility and durabiliy assessment","volume":"425","author":"Niu","year":"2024","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"136147","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2024.136147","article-title":"Use of coal chemical industry by-product coal gasification fine ash as supplementary cementitious materials in cement: Chemical excitation, hydration and hardening characteristics","volume":"426","author":"Mao","year":"2024","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, X., Liu, F., Li, L., Chen, W., Cong, X., Yu, T., and Zhang, B. (2024). Study on the Compressive Strength and Reaction Mechanism of Alkali-Activated Geopolymer Materials Using Coal Gangue and Ground Granulated Blast Furnace Slag. Materials, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/ma17153659"},{"key":"ref_12","first-page":"e01332","article-title":"Exploring calcined coal gangue fines as the total substitute of fly ash in the production of alkali-activated slag\/fly ash materials","volume":"17","author":"Wang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Case Stud. Constr. Mater."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"126997","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2022.126997","article-title":"Preparation of coal gangue-slag-fly ash geopolymer grouting materials","volume":"328","author":"Guo","year":"2022","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"129279","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2022.129279","article-title":"Strength development and microstructure of sustainable geopolymers made from alkali-activated ground granulated blast-furnace slag, calcium carbide residue, and red mud","volume":"356","author":"An","year":"2022","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104999","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cemconcomp.2023.104999","article-title":"Preparation and curing method of red mud-calcium carbide slag synergistically activated fly ash-ground granulated blast furnace slag based eco-friendly geopolymer","volume":"139","author":"Shi","year":"2023","journal-title":"Cem. Concr. Compos."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"139439","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclepro.2023.139439","article-title":"The design of ternary all-solid-waste binder for solidified soil and the mechanical properties, mechanism and environmental benefits of CGF solidified soil","volume":"429","author":"Wu","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Clean. Prod."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8757","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jmrt.2023.09.196","article-title":"Sulfate resistance and degradation mechanism of basalt fiber modified graphite tailings cement-based materials","volume":"26","author":"Zhang","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Mater. Res. Technol."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"136250","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2024.136250","article-title":"Performance of coal gangue concrete with fly ash and ground-granulated blast slag: Rheology, mechanical properties and microstructure","volume":"427","author":"Zhang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_19","first-page":"e03660","article-title":"Mechanical properties and solidification mechanism of coal gangue-granulated blast furnace slag geopolymer stabilized engineering slurry","volume":"21","author":"Liu","year":"2024","journal-title":"Case Stud. Constr. Mater."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"138471","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2024.138471","article-title":"Carbonation resistance of fly ash\/slag based engineering geopolymer composites","volume":"449","author":"Feng","year":"2024","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, G., Zhou, C., Ahmad, W., Usanova, K.I., Karelina, M., Mohamed, A.M., and Khallaf, R. (2022). Fly Ash Application as Supplementary Cementitious Material: A Review. Materials, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/ma15072664"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"117946","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclepro.2019.117946","article-title":"Comprehensive utilization and environmental risks of coal gangue: A review","volume":"239","author":"Li","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Clean. Prod."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5758","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-022-33289-7","article-title":"Cement substitution with secondary materials can reduce annual global CO2 emissions by up to 1.3 gigatons","volume":"13","author":"Shah","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_24","first-page":"e00796","article-title":"Comparison of environmental impacts of fly ash and slag as cement replacement materials for mass concrete and the impact of transportation","volume":"39","author":"Orozco","year":"2024","journal-title":"Sustain. Mater. Technol."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1241","DOI":"10.1038\/s41597-025-05608-2","article-title":"An inventory of industrial solid waste in 337 cities of China: Applying machine learning for data completion","volume":"12","author":"Jia","year":"2025","journal-title":"Sci. Data"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"136775","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2024.136775","article-title":"A comprehensive review of multisource solid wastes in sustainable concrete: From material properties to engineering application","volume":"435","author":"Yang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107104","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cemconres.2023.107104","article-title":"Alkali-activated fly ash cured with pulsed microwave and thermal oven: A comparison of reaction products, microstructure and compressive strength","volume":"166","author":"Shi","year":"2023","journal-title":"Cem. Concr. Res."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, W., Li, R., Chen, Y., and Xiao, H. (2023). Comparison of Two Sulfate-Bearing Soils Stabilized with Reactive Magnesia-Activated Ground Granulated Blast Furnace Slag: Swelling, Strength, and Mechanism. Buildings, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/buildings13010230"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Abdila, S.R., Abdullah, M.M.A.B., Ahmad, R., Nergis, D.D.B., Rahim, S.Z.A., Omar, M.F., Sandu, A.V., Vizureanu, P. (2022). Potential of Soil Stabilization Using Ground Granulated Blast Furnace Slag (GGBFS) and Fly Ash via Geopolymerization Method: A Review. Materials, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/ma15010375"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhu, C., Wan, Y., Wang, L., Ye, Y., Yu, H., and Yang, J. (2022). Strength Characteristics and Microstructure Analysis of Alkali-Activated Slag-Fly Ash Cementitious Material. Materials, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/ma15176169"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"137271","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2024.137271","article-title":"Comprehensive study on coal gangue-based geopolymer activated by phosphoric acid: From macroscale properties to molecular simulation","volume":"438","author":"Zhang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"47928","DOI":"10.1021\/acsomega.5c02457","article-title":"Performance Study of Alkali-Activated Coal Gangue Powder-Based Geopolymer Flowable Solidified Soil","volume":"10","author":"Yang","year":"2025","journal-title":"ACS Omega"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18666","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-025-03525-3","article-title":"Mechanical properties and damage model of alkali activated polymer solidified soil containing coal gangue powder","volume":"15","author":"Yang","year":"2025","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Turan, C., Javadi, A.A., Vinai, R., and Russo, G. (2022). Effects of Fly Ash Inclusion and Alkali Activation on Physical, Mechanical, and Chemical Properties of Clay. Materials, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/ma15134628"},{"key":"ref_35","unstructured":"(2019). Standard for Geotechnical Testing Method (Standard No. GB\/T 50123-2019)."},{"key":"ref_36","unstructured":"(2025). Katalog Typowych Konstrukcji Nawierzchni Podatnych i P\u00f3\u0142sztywnych, Version 01 [Catalogue of Typical Flexible and Semi-Rigid Pavement Structures] (Standard No. WR-D-61). Available online: https:\/\/www.gov.pl\/attachment\/20d9962d-1f89-419d-8080-cff54d14e30f."}],"container-title":["Materials"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1996-1944\/19\/18\/3978\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,22]],"date-time":"2026-09-22T04:21:20Z","timestamp":1790050880000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1996-1944\/19\/18\/3978"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,19]]},"references-count":36,"journal-issue":{"issue":"18","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9]]}},"alternative-id":["ma19183978"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ma19183978","relation":{},"ISSN":["1996-1944"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1996-1944","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,19]]}}}