{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,21]],"date-time":"2026-09-21T18:10:29Z","timestamp":1790014229336,"version":"4.0.1"},"reference-count":26,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"18","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,20]],"date-time":"2026-09-20T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1789862400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100002855","name":"Ministry of Science and Technology of the People\u2019s Republic of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["2023YFC3010304"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2023YFC3010304"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100002855","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"award":["2023YFC3010304"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2023YFC3010304"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/027s68j25","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"Jiangsu Provincial Administration for Market Regulation","award":["KJ2024028"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["KJ2024028"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Materials"],"abstract":"<jats:p>This study investigates damage evolution in a polymer-lined, fully wrapped Type IV composite pressure vessel containing artificial local defects under stepwise hydrostatic loading. A 70 MPa vessel was pressurized in 20 MPa increments to 160 MPa, while acoustic emission (AE) was monitored continuously. Ball-impact calibration established the relationship between input mechanical energy and AE waveform energy. Three high-frequency criteria based on waveform and band-limited energy ratios were used to identify fiber-fracture-related high-frequency signals, while ratios between adjacent background-energy characteristic points were used to identify background-energy oscillation (BEO). The calibration yielded a mechanical-to-AE energy conversion coefficient of 1.92354 \u00d7 10\u22126 with R2 = 0.9707. No high-frequency signals or BEOs were detected during the 20\u201380 MPa holds. At 100 MPa, two high-frequency signals and four BEOs occurred, with a maximum adjacent-point ratio of 4.63, suggesting the coexistence of high-frequency responses consistent with fiber-dominated damage and continuous weak AE activity. At 140 MPa, three high-frequency signals indicated the re-emergence of localized high-frequency activity after stress re-equilibration. At 160 MPa, 23 high-frequency signals, a maximum C1 of 1330.434, and six BEOs reflected pronounced damage-related AE activity in the composite overwrap. The combined approach captures staged damage evolution and supports AE-based integrity assessment of composite pressure vessels.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ma19184011","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,21]],"date-time":"2026-09-21T17:23:17Z","timestamp":1790011397000},"page":"4011","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Damage Evolution of a Type IV Composite Pressure Vessel Based on High-Frequency Acoustic Emission Signals and Background-Energy Analysis"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"19","author":[{"given":"Xiangdong","family":"Ma","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Special Equipment Safety Supervision Inspection Institute of Jiangsu Province, Nanjing 210036, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"conceptualization","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"methodology","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"formal-analysis","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"investigation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"data-curation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-original-draft","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"visualization","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"given":"Wenli","family":"Dong","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Special Equipment Safety Supervision Inspection Institute of Jiangsu Province, Nanjing 210036, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"conceptualization","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"methodology","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"formal-analysis","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-review-editing","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"supervision","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"given":"Yanbing","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Special Equipment Safety Supervision Inspection Institute of Jiangsu Province, Nanjing 210036, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"methodology","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"validation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"investigation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"data-curation","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"given":"Wei","family":"Zheng","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Special Equipment Safety Supervision Inspection Institute of Jiangsu Province, Nanjing 210036, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"resources","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-review-editing","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"project-administration","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4513-2691","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Shen","family":"He","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Special Equipment Safety Supervision Inspection Institute of Jiangsu Province, Nanjing 210036, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"conceptualization","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"methodology","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"formal-analysis","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-review-editing","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"supervision","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"project-administration","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"funding-acquisition","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"given":"Zhongyuan","family":"Xu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Special Equipment Safety Supervision Inspection Institute of Jiangsu Province, Nanjing 210036, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"validation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"investigation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"data-curation","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"given":"Xiao","family":"Wu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Special Equipment Safety Supervision Inspection Institute of Jiangsu Province, Nanjing 210036, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"investigation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"resources","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"given":"Yonghua","family":"Yu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Special Equipment Safety Supervision Inspection Institute of Jiangsu Province, Nanjing 210036, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"methodology","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"validation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"formal-analysis","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"investigation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"resources","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-review-editing","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"given":"Yanlong","family":"Chen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Special Equipment Safety Supervision Inspection Institute of Jiangsu Province, Nanjing 210036, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"software","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"visualization","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6484-7257","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yan","family":"Yan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Mechanical Engineering, Southeast University, Nanjing 211189, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"writing-review-editing","vocabulary":"credit"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,20]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1687814020913761","DOI":"10.1177\/1687814020913761","article-title":"Non-Destructive Testing and Evaluation of Composite Materials\/Structures: A State-of-the-Art Review","volume":"12","author":"Wang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Adv. Mech. Eng."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"707","DOI":"10.1080\/09243046.2024.2398289","article-title":"Structural Health Monitoring of Type 4 Composite Fuel Tank Based on Correlation between Ultrasonic Attenuation and Crack Density","volume":"34","author":"Kim","year":"2024","journal-title":"Adv. Compos. Mater."},{"key":"ref_3","unstructured":"(2023). Standard Terminology for Nondestructive Examinations (Standard No. ASTM E1316)."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ono, K. (2018). Review on Structural Health Evaluation with Acoustic Emission. Appl. Sci., 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/app8060958"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7","DOI":"10.1007\/BF02319949","article-title":"A Review: Acoustic Emission, a Tool for Composite-Materials Studies","volume":"26","author":"Hamstad","year":"1986","journal-title":"Exp. Mech."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1367","DOI":"10.1016\/S0266-3538(01)00036-7","article-title":"Experimental and Theoretical Characterization of Acoustic Emission Transients in Composite Laminates","volume":"61","author":"Johnson","year":"2001","journal-title":"Compos. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"228","DOI":"10.1016\/j.matdes.2011.12.015","article-title":"A Study on the Failure Mechanisms of Carbon Fiber\/Epoxy Composite Laminates Using Acoustic Emission","volume":"37","author":"Liu","year":"2012","journal-title":"Mater. Des."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hamam, Z., Godin, N., Fusco, C., and Monnier, T. (2019). Modelling of Acoustic Emission Signals Due to Fiber Break in a Model Composite Carbon\/Epoxy: Experimental Validation and Parametric Study. Appl. Sci., 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/app9235124"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Godin, N., Reynaud, P., and Fantozzi, G. (2018). Challenges and Limitations in the Identification of Acoustic Emission Signature of Damage Mechanisms in Composite Materials. Appl. Sci., 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/app8081267"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ghadarah, N., and Ayre, D. (2023). A Review on Acoustic Emission Testing for Structural Health Monitoring of Polymer-Based Composites. Sensors, 23.","DOI":"10.3390\/s23156945"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ciaburro, G., and Iannace, G. (2022). Machine-Learning-Based Methods for Acoustic Emission Testing: A Review. Appl. Sci., 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/app122010476"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jierula, A., Wu, C., Kali, A., and Fu, Z. (2024). A Review of Acoustic Emission Source Localization Techniques in Different Dimensions. Appl. Sci., 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/app14198684"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jiang, P., Liu, X., Li, W., Guo, F., Hong, C., Liu, Y., and Yang, C. (2022). Damage Characterization of Carbon Fiber Composite Pressure Vessels Based on Modal Acoustic Emission. Materials, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/ma15144783"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"22494","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijhydene.2019.02.217","article-title":"Acoustic Emission-Based Damage Characterization of 70 MPa Type IV Hydrogen Composite Pressure Vessels during Hydraulic Tests","volume":"44","author":"Liao","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int. J. Hydrogen Energy"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12605","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijhydene.2020.12.177","article-title":"Acoustic Emission Characteristics of Used 70 MPa Type IV Hydrogen Storage Tanks during Hydrostatic Burst Tests","volume":"46","author":"Wang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int. J. Hydrogen Energy"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ley, O., and Godinez-Azcuaga, V. (2023). Development of an Acoustic Emission Technology Package for COPVs Inspection and Recertification. EWGAE 2022, NDT.net.","DOI":"10.58286\/27619"},{"key":"ref_17","unstructured":"Dahmene, F., Yaacoubi, S., Bittendiebel, S., Bardoux, O., Blanc-Vannet, P., Maldachowska, A., Barcikowski, M., Panek, M., Alexandre, N., and Nony, F. (2018, January 12\u201314). Use of Acoustic Emission for Inspection of Composite Pressure Vessels Subjected to Mechanical Impact. Proceedings of the 33rd European Conference on Acoustic Emission Testing (EWGAE 2018), Senlis, France."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"39","DOI":"10.1007\/s10921-025-01319-1","article-title":"Monitoring Failure of Composite Pressure Vessels with Acoustic Emissions","volume":"45","author":"Duffner","year":"2026","journal-title":"J. Nondestruct. Eval."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"764","DOI":"10.1002\/pc.29814","article-title":"Qualitative and Quantitative Damage Assessment of Composite Pressure Vessels on the Basis of Acoustic Emission Parameters","volume":"46","author":"Yang","year":"2025","journal-title":"Polym. Compos."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109724","DOI":"10.1016\/j.engfracmech.2023.109724","article-title":"Cross-Scale Data-Based Damage Identification of CFRP Laminates Using Acoustic Emission and Deep Learning","volume":"294","author":"Liu","year":"2023","journal-title":"Eng. Fract. Mech."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"116875","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compstruct.2023.116875","article-title":"A Waveform-Based Clustering and Machine Learning Method for Damage Mode Identification in CFRP Laminates","volume":"312","author":"Wang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Compos. Struct."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"153662","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijhydene.2026.153662","article-title":"A Novel Embedded Optical Fibre Sensors Network and Integration Strategy for In-Situ Monitoring of Hydrogen Storage 70 MPa Type IV Composite Pressure Vessels","volume":"212","author":"Li","year":"2026","journal-title":"Int. J. Hydrogen Energy"},{"key":"ref_23","unstructured":"(2022). Standard Guide for Determining the Reproducibility of Acoustic Emission Sensor Response (Standard No. ASTM E976)."},{"key":"ref_24","unstructured":"U.S. Department of Transportation, Pipeline and Hazardous Materials Safety Administration (PHMSA) (2018). Modal Acoustic Emission (MAE) Examination Specification for Requalification of Composite Overwrapped Pressure Vessels (Cylinders and Tubes)."},{"key":"ref_25","unstructured":"(2023). Standard Guide for Acoustic Emission System Performance Verification (Standard No. ASTM E2374)."},{"key":"ref_26","unstructured":"(2022). Standard Guide for Mounting Piezoelectric Acoustic Emission Sensors (Standard No. ASTM E650\/E650M)."}],"container-title":["Materials"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1996-1944\/19\/18\/4011\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,21]],"date-time":"2026-09-21T17:40:22Z","timestamp":1790012422000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1996-1944\/19\/18\/4011"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,20]]},"references-count":26,"journal-issue":{"issue":"18","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9]]}},"alternative-id":["ma19184011"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ma19184011","relation":{},"ISSN":["1996-1944"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1996-1944","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,20]]}}}