{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,11,4]],"date-time":"2026-11-04T03:58:45Z","timestamp":1793764725818,"version":"4.6.1"},"reference-count":103,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"19","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,22]],"date-time":"2026-09-22T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1790035200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Australian Department of Education","id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/03z942k20","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/03z942k20","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"University of Southern Queensland-led Sustainable Industry Manufacturing Planning","id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/04sjbnx57","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/04sjbnx57","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"Australian Commonwealth Government"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Materials"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Waste-derived materials are increasingly being investigated as aggregate replacements and supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs) in cementitious composites due to their potential to improve resource efficiency while maintaining engineering performance. This review critically evaluates waste-derived materials used as aggregate replacements and SCMs, with particular emphasis on crushed glass aggregate (CGA), fly ash (FA), and mining tailings. Unlike previous reviews that focus primarily on individual waste streams, this study provides a comparative and mechanism-based assessment of these materials within a unified framework relevant to cementitious composites and shotcrete applications. Their influence on mechanical performance, durability, rheology, and microstructural development is assessed through the review of 78 publications, together with the governing mechanisms of packing effects, pozzolanic reactivity, and interfacial transition zone (ITZ) modification. Across the reviewed studies, CGA generally demonstrated favourable performance at moderate aggregate replacement levels (approximately 15\u201330%), FA commonly improved workability and durability at cement replacement levels of 10\u201320%, while mining tailings exhibited highly source-dependent behaviour, with performance strongly influenced by tailing type, mineralogy, processing history, and functional role within the cementitious system. Variability in physicochemical properties and processing methods contributed to inconsistent behaviour and limited direct comparison between studies. Critical knowledge gaps are identified, including long-term durability and hybrid CGA\u2013FA and FBMT\u2013FA systems. A comparative framework and research roadmap are proposed to support the development of durable and resource-efficient cementitious composites.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ma19194049","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,22]],"date-time":"2026-09-22T13:32:12Z","timestamp":1790083932000},"page":"4049","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Comparative Assessment of Crushed Glass Aggregate, Fly Ash, and Mining Tailings in Cementitious Composites and Shotcrete Applications"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"19","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0004-9744-6531","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Steven","family":"Perren","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre for Future Materials (CFM), University of Southern Queensland, Toowoomba, QLD 4350, Australia"},{"name":"School of Science, Engineering and Digital Technologies, University of Southern Queensland, Toowoomba, QLD 4350, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7967-9233","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ali","family":"Mirzaghorbanali","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre for Future Materials (CFM), University of Southern Queensland, Toowoomba, QLD 4350, Australia"},{"name":"School of Science, Engineering and Digital Technologies, University of Southern Queensland, Toowoomba, QLD 4350, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0109-2966","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Hadi","family":"Nourizadeh","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre for Future Materials (CFM), University of Southern Queensland, Toowoomba, QLD 4350, Australia"},{"name":"School of Science, Engineering and Digital Technologies, University of Southern Queensland, Toowoomba, QLD 4350, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9248-2307","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Paulomi (Polly)","family":"Burey","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre for Future Materials (CFM), University of Southern Queensland, Toowoomba, QLD 4350, Australia"},{"name":"School of Science, Engineering and Digital Technologies, University of Southern Queensland, Toowoomba, QLD 4350, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6088-1004","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Kevin","family":"McDougall","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Science, Engineering and Digital Technologies, University of Southern Queensland, Toowoomba, QLD 4350, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,22]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105745","DOI":"10.1016\/j.resconrec.2021.105745","article-title":"Recycling of landfill wastes (tyres, plastics and glass) in construction \u2013 A review on global waste generation, performance, application and future opportunities","volume":"173","author":"Ferdous","year":"2021","journal-title":"Resour. Conserv. Recycl."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"Pickin, J.C.W., O\u2019Farrell, K., Stovell, L., Nyunt, P., Guazzo, S., Lin, Y., Caggiati-Shortell, G., Chakma, P., Edwards, C., and Lindley, B. (2022). National Waste Report 2022, The Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water."},{"key":"ref_3","unstructured":"Nationwide Waste Solutions (2023, October 18). 6 Facts You Should Know About Recycling Glass. Available online: https:\/\/nationwidewaste.com.au\/6-facts-you-should-know-about-recycling-glass\/."},{"key":"ref_4","unstructured":"Victoria State Government (2023). National Approach to Manage Solar Panel, Inverter and Battery Life Cycles, Victoria State Government."},{"key":"ref_5","unstructured":"Lambert, I. (2022). Potential Impacts and Opportunities Arising from Australia\u2019s Green Energy Transition with Emphasis on Critical Minerals and Mining Wastes."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"122721","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhazmat.2020.122721","article-title":"Gold mining tailing: Environmental availability of metals and human health risk assessment","volume":"397","author":"Barcelos","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Hazard. Mater."},{"key":"ref_7","unstructured":"Australian Government (2016). Tailings Management\u2014Leading Practice Sustainable Development Program for the Mining Industry."},{"key":"ref_8","unstructured":"(2024, June 27). Environmental Management for Mine Sites. Available online: https:\/\/www.csiro.au\/en\/work-with-us\/industries\/mining-resources?Social-and-environmental-performance?Minesite-environmental-managment."},{"key":"ref_9","unstructured":"Concrete Institute of Australia (2010). Recommended Practice\u2014Shotcreting in Australia, Concrete Institute of Australia."},{"key":"ref_10","first-page":"28","article-title":"The history of shotcrete","volume":"2","author":"Yoggy","year":"2000","journal-title":"Shotcrete Am. Shotcrete Assoc."},{"key":"ref_11","unstructured":"UNEP (2022). Sand and Sustainability: 10 Strategic Recommendations to Avert a Crisis, GRID-Geneva, United Nations Environment Programme."},{"key":"ref_12","unstructured":"(ABC News, 2022). UN Warns of Looming Sand Crisis as Population and City Growth Lead to Surging Demand, ABC News."},{"key":"ref_13","unstructured":"Budinski, K., and Budinski, M. (2010). Engineering Materials: Properties and Selection, Pearson. [9th ed.]."},{"key":"ref_14","unstructured":"Foster, S., Kilpatrick, A., and Warner, R. (2021). Reinforced Concrete Basics: Analysis and Design of Reinforced Concrete Structures, Pearson. [3rd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_15","unstructured":"Woodson, R.D. (2012). Concrete Portable Handbook, Butterworth-Heinemann. [1st ed.]."},{"key":"ref_16","unstructured":"A\u00eftcin, P.-C., and Flatt, R.J. (2015). Science and Technology of Concrete Admixtures, Elsevier Science & Technology."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"155877","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2022.155877","article-title":"The environmental impacts of river sand mining","volume":"838","author":"Rentier","year":"2022","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"118866","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2020.118866","article-title":"Performance comparison of cement replacing materials in concrete: Limestone fillers and supplementary cementing materials\u2014A review","volume":"251","author":"Panesar","year":"2020","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"112501","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jenvman.2021.112501","article-title":"A review of additives used in the cemented paste tailings: Environmental aspects and application","volume":"289","author":"Saedi","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Environ. Manag."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"449","DOI":"10.1515\/secm-2019-0029","article-title":"Utilization of tailings in cement and concrete: A review","volume":"26","author":"Gou","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sci. Eng. Compos. Mater."},{"key":"ref_21","first-page":"221","article-title":"Sustainable use of mine waste and tailings with suitable admixture as aggregates in concrete pavements-A review","volume":"6","author":"Gayana","year":"2018","journal-title":"Adv. Concr. Constr."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1051\/matecconf\/202236405008","article-title":"Application of mine tailings sand as construction material\u2014A review","volume":"364","author":"Ikotun","year":"2022","journal-title":"MATEC Web Conf."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"529","DOI":"10.1111\/ijac.13434","article-title":"Waste glass in civil engineering applications\u2014A review","volume":"17","author":"Kazmi","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Appl. Ceram. Technol."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"133844","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2023.133844","article-title":"Role of bauxite residue as a binding material and its effect on engineering properties of cementitious Composites: A review","volume":"409","author":"Salim","year":"2023","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100191","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clwas.2024.100191","article-title":"Potential use of crushed waste glass and glass powder in sustainable pervious concrete: A review","volume":"9","author":"Sathiparan","year":"2024","journal-title":"Clean. Waste Syst."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"124762","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclepro.2020.124762","article-title":"The potential use of crushed waste glass as a sustainable alternative to natural and manufactured sand in geotechnical applications","volume":"284","author":"Kazmi","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Clean. Prod."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"121242","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2020.121242","article-title":"Concrete containing waste recycled glass, plastic and rubber as sand replacement","volume":"269","author":"Steyn","year":"2021","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"117804","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2019.117804","article-title":"Performance of recycled waste glass sand as partial replacement of sand in concrete","volume":"239","author":"Tamanna","year":"2020","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"02004","DOI":"10.1051\/matecconf\/202338402004","article-title":"Investigation of the Optimum Shotcrete Mixing Ratio for Slope Protection using Fly Ash","volume":"384","author":"Win","year":"2023","journal-title":"MATEC Web Conf."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"012009","DOI":"10.1088\/1755-1315\/787\/1\/012009","article-title":"Study on the effect of fineness and dosage of fly ash on mechanical properties of concrete","volume":"787","author":"Wang","year":"2021","journal-title":"IOP Conf. Ser. Earth Environ. Sci."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"012013","DOI":"10.1088\/1742-6596\/2168\/1\/012013","article-title":"Effect of Fly Ash Content in Shotcrete on Mechanical Properties","volume":"2168","author":"Wu","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Phys. Conf. Ser."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"022063","DOI":"10.1088\/1757-899X\/452\/2\/022063","article-title":"Research on influences of fly ash content on mechanical properties of shotcrete","volume":"452","author":"Lu","year":"2018","journal-title":"IOP Conf. Ser. Mater. Sci. Eng."},{"key":"ref_33","first-page":"333","article-title":"Develop a sustainable wet shotcrete for tunnel lining using industrial waste: A field experiment and simulation approach","volume":"15","author":"Sun","year":"2023","journal-title":"Adv. Concr. Constr."},{"key":"ref_34","unstructured":"Australian Government (2024). Atlas of Australian Mine Waste."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101894","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scp.2024.101894","article-title":"Novel exploration of chemical compounds in mono-variate, Bi-variate, and multi-variate scenarios of waste glass powder as a cement replacement in concrete","volume":"43","author":"Ishaq","year":"2025","journal-title":"Sustain. Chem. Pharm."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jahami, A., Khatib, J., and Raydan, R. (2022). Production of Low-Cost, High-Strength Concrete with Waste Glass as Fine Aggregates Replacement. Buildings, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/buildings12122168"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"123501","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclepro.2020.123501","article-title":"Mechanical and fracture properties of ultra-high performance concrete (UHPC) containing waste glass sand as partial replacement material","volume":"277","author":"Jiao","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Clean. Prod."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111269","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jobe.2024.111269","article-title":"Rebar corrosion and bond in concrete with recycled glass granules","volume":"98","author":"Wei","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Build. Eng."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100179","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clwas.2024.100179","article-title":"Transforming waste into strength: Evaluating properties of concrete with waste glass substitution","volume":"9","author":"Bhat","year":"2024","journal-title":"Clean. Waste Syst."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"116","DOI":"10.56748\/ejse.141951","article-title":"Recycled glass as a partial replacement for fine aggregate in structural concrete\u2014Effects on compressive strength","volume":"14","author":"Adaway","year":"2015","journal-title":"Electron. J. Struct. Eng."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"49","DOI":"10.1007\/s41062-021-00652-4","article-title":"Mechanical properties, impact resistance and bond strength of green concrete incorporating waste glass powder and waste fine plastic aggregate","volume":"7","author":"Mohammed","year":"2021","journal-title":"Innov. Infrastruct. Solut."},{"key":"ref_42","first-page":"1109","article-title":"Reuse plastic and glass wastes as a partial replacement of concrete components","volume":"15","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Eng. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"139609","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2024.139609","article-title":"Synergetic valorization of recycled aggregates and waste glass powder in sustainable concrete: Microstructure, mechanical strength, and bonding performance","volume":"458","author":"Song","year":"2025","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_44","first-page":"1","article-title":"Recycled Glass Concrete: Coarse and Fine Aggregates","volume":"3","author":"Gerges","year":"2018","journal-title":"Eur. J. Eng. Technol. Res."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1373415","DOI":"10.1080\/23311916.2017.1373415","article-title":"Effect of glass powder on the compression strength and the workability of concrete","volume":"4","author":"Rahma","year":"2017","journal-title":"Cogent Eng."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"539","DOI":"10.1016\/j.wasman.2024.12.034","article-title":"An explainable machine learning system for efficient use of waste glasses in durable concrete to maximise carbon credits towards net zero emissions","volume":"193","author":"Huang","year":"2025","journal-title":"Waste Manag."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"170","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclepro.2011.07.020","article-title":"Environmental risks of using recycled crushed glass in road applications","volume":"20","author":"Disfani","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Clean. Prod."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"785","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2012.04.117","article-title":"Recycled glass as a partial replacement for fine aggregate in self compacting concrete","volume":"35","author":"Ali","year":"2012","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_49","first-page":"e02532","article-title":"Effect of recycled crushed glass and recycled coarse aggregate on the properties of self-compacting concrete","volume":"19","author":"Ahmad","year":"2023","journal-title":"Case Stud. Constr. Mater."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"655","DOI":"10.1016\/j.wasman.2008.08.012","article-title":"Recycling of waste glass as a partial replacement for fine aggregate in concrete","volume":"29","author":"Ismail","year":"2009","journal-title":"Waste Manag."},{"key":"ref_51","unstructured":"Basireddy, S.M.R., Serati, M., Jackson, N., Malgotra, G., and Asche, H. (2021). Utilization of crushed waste glass in shotcrete. ARMA US Rock Mechanics\/Geomechanics Symposium, ARMA."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"82","DOI":"10.1007\/s42452-022-04967-4","article-title":"Sustainable shotcrete production with waste glass aggregates","volume":"4","author":"Serati","year":"2022","journal-title":"SN Appl. Sci."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Augonis, A., Ivanauskas, E., Bocullo, V., Kantautas, A., and Vai\u010diukynien\u0117, D. (2022). The Influence of Expanded Glass and Expanded Clay on Lightweight Aggregate Shotcrete Properties. Materials, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/ma15051674"},{"key":"ref_54","first-page":"e00794","article-title":"Sustainable utilisation of low-grade and contaminated waste glass fines as a partial sand replacement in structural concrete","volume":"16","author":"Wang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Case Stud. Constr. Mater."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"144048","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclepro.2024.144048","article-title":"Comparative LCA-MCDA of high-strength eco-pervious concrete by using recycled waste glass materials","volume":"479","author":"Liu","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Clean. Prod."},{"key":"ref_56","first-page":"1285","article-title":"An investigation of mechanical behavior of concrete containing crushed waste glass","volume":"17","author":"Asa","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Eng. Des. Technol."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"125021","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2021.125021","article-title":"Predicting the compressive strength of concrete with fly ash admixture using machine learning algorithms","volume":"308","author":"Song","year":"2021","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3625","DOI":"10.1016\/j.matpr.2020.12.821","article-title":"Effect of waste foundry sand and fly ash on mechanical and fresh properties of concrete","volume":"47","author":"Reshma","year":"2021","journal-title":"Mater. Today Proc."},{"key":"ref_59","first-page":"e02679","article-title":"Study on mechanical properties and ratio parameter optimization of fly ash wet shotcrete under the influence of multiple factors","volume":"19","author":"Zou","year":"2023","journal-title":"Case Stud. Constr. Mater."},{"key":"ref_60","unstructured":"Davoodi, M., Nikraz, H., and Jamieson, E. (2007). Chemical and physical characterization of coarse bauxite residue (red sand) for concrete making. Sustainable Construction Materials and Technologies, Taylor & Francis Group."},{"key":"ref_61","first-page":"525","article-title":"Replacement of Sand with Bauxite Mining Waste in Concrete Production","volume":"6","author":"Danso","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Mater. Eng. Struct."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"131005","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2023.131005","article-title":"Study on the utilization of red mud (bauxite waste) as a supplementary cementitious material: Pathway to attaining sustainable development goals","volume":"375","author":"Patangia","year":"2023","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shirodkar, V., Patel, R., Verma, M., and Mahate, V. (2023). An investigation into the durability of concrete using red mud as a substitute in cement. Mater. Today Proc.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.matpr.2023.12.010"},{"key":"ref_64","first-page":"e01409","article-title":"Compressive, flexural and corrosion permeability resistance properties of concrete with bauxite tailing as supplementary mineral admixtures","volume":"18","author":"Yalley","year":"2022","journal-title":"Sci. Afr."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"78960","DOI":"10.1007\/s11356-022-21409-1","article-title":"Effect of thermal activation and particle size on cementitious activity of bauxite tailings","volume":"29","author":"Zhou","year":"2022","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"472","DOI":"10.1016\/j.matpr.2021.09.233","article-title":"Mechanical strength analysis of fly-ash based concrete in presence of red mud","volume":"52","author":"Kumar","year":"2022","journal-title":"Mater. Today Proc."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"733","DOI":"10.1016\/j.matpr.2020.11.156","article-title":"An investigational study on properties of concrete produced with industrial waste red mud","volume":"42","author":"Chavan","year":"2021","journal-title":"Mater. Today Proc."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.1007\/s41062-020-00371-2","article-title":"Role of red mud as a cementing material in concrete: A comprehensive study on durability behavior","volume":"6","author":"Venkatesh","year":"2020","journal-title":"Innov. Infrastruct. Solut."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"284","DOI":"10.1016\/j.matpr.2019.11.026","article-title":"Comparison of mechanical and durability properties of treated and untreated red mud concrete","volume":"27","author":"Venkatesh","year":"2019","journal-title":"Mater. Today Proc."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"119917","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2020.119917","article-title":"Effects of iron ore tailings on the compressive strength and permeability of ultra-high performance concrete","volume":"260","author":"Zhang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108442","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jobe.2024.108442","article-title":"Properties of Ultra-High Performance Concrete incorporating iron tailings powder and iron tailings sand","volume":"83","author":"Shi","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Build. Eng."},{"key":"ref_72","first-page":"e01631","article-title":"Optimizing 1-hydroxyethylidene-1,1-diphosphonic acid and mechanically-activated iron ore tailings to prepare low-cost and retarded magnesium oxysulfate cement","volume":"17","author":"Liang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Case Stud. Constr. Mater."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"704","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclepro.2018.11.107","article-title":"A comparative study on the practical utilization of iron tailings as a complete replacement of normal aggregates in dam concrete with different gradation","volume":"211","author":"Lv","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Clean. Prod."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"120760","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2020.120760","article-title":"Cementitious activity optimization studies of iron tailings powder as a concrete admixture","volume":"265","author":"Yang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1922","DOI":"10.1016\/j.matpr.2022.05.163","article-title":"A study on durability and strength properties of high strength concrete with partial replacement of iron ore tailings with fine aggregates","volume":"65","author":"Jayasimha","year":"2022","journal-title":"Mater. Today Proc."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108119","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jobe.2023.108119","article-title":"Iron ore tailing (IOT) chemical composition and content impact on the physical, mechanical, and durability properties of blended cement","volume":"80","author":"Vescovi","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Build. Eng."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"117132","DOI":"10.1016\/j.powtec.2022.117132","article-title":"Influence of iron tailing powder on properties of concrete with fly ash","volume":"398","author":"Han","year":"2022","journal-title":"Powder Technol."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"124496","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2021.124496","article-title":"Feasibility of iron-rich ore tailing as supplementary cementitious material in cement pastes","volume":"303","author":"Siqueira","year":"2021","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"118147","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2020.118147","article-title":"Durability of concrete incorporated with siliceous iron tailings","volume":"242","author":"Cheng","year":"2020","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"25","DOI":"10.1007\/s10035-023-01316-z","article-title":"Damage evaluation of concrete using iron ore tailings as aggregates under uniaxial cyclic compression","volume":"25","author":"Ling","year":"2023","journal-title":"Granul. Matter"},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2105","DOI":"10.1007\/s12517-021-08418-z","article-title":"The microstructure and mechanical property of tailings and its application in artificial concrete","volume":"14","author":"Fan","year":"2021","journal-title":"Arab. J. Geosci."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2111","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jmrt.2024.03.191","article-title":"Disposal of solid waste as building materials: A study on the mechanical and durability performance of concrete composed of gold tailings","volume":"30","author":"Song","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Mater. Res. Technol."},{"key":"ref_83","unstructured":"Widojoko, L., Hardjasaputra, H. (2014, January 28\u201329). Study of Gold Mine Tailings Utilization as Fine Aggregate Material for Producing Shotcrete Based on Concept of Green Technology. Proceedings of the 3rd International Conference on Engineering and Technology Development 2014, Bandar Lampung, Indonesia."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"131527","DOI":"10.1016\/j.matlet.2021.131527","article-title":"Influence of curing regimes on the mechanical properties and microstructure of ultra-high-performance concrete blended with gold mine tailings","volume":"311","author":"Luo","year":"2022","journal-title":"Mater. Lett."},{"key":"ref_85","first-page":"e01031","article-title":"Comparative mechanical properties of conventional concrete mixture and concrete incorporating mining tailings sands","volume":"16","author":"Baykara","year":"2022","journal-title":"Case Stud. Constr. Mater."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"894","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2013.07.075","article-title":"Strength and durability characteristics of copper tailing concrete","volume":"48","author":"Thomas","year":"2013","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, Z., Gao, N., and Wang, H. (2024). The Effect of Copper Tailings Sand on the Workability and Mechanical Properties of Concrete. Buildings, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/buildings14061789"},{"key":"ref_88","unstructured":"Gutierrez, M., Gomez, R., Alcayaga, A., Avudaiappan, S., and Betancourt, F. (2024, January 17\u201319). Potential of copper tailings as fine aggregates in cement mortar. Proceedings of the 9th International Conference and Exhibition on Mass Mining, Kiruna, Sweden."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"120810","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclepro.2020.120810","article-title":"Research on shotcrete in mine using non-activated waste coal gangue aggregate","volume":"259","author":"Xiao","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Clean. Prod."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108088","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jobe.2023.108088","article-title":"Mechanical properties prediction of lightweight coal gangue shotcrete","volume":"80","author":"Sun","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Build. Eng."},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"123563","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2021.123563","article-title":"Effect and mechanism of coal gangue concrete modification by fly ash","volume":"294","author":"Qiu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"129904","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2022.129904","article-title":"Investigation on the applicability of bauxite tailings as fine aggregate to prepare 3D printing mortar","volume":"364","author":"Zhou","year":"2023","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_93","first-page":"100704","article-title":"Durability and hardened properties of 3D printed concrete containing bauxite tailings","volume":"25","author":"Zhou","year":"2024","journal-title":"Mater. Today Sustain."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"877","DOI":"10.1007\/s11595-016-1462-0","article-title":"Utilization of red mud as raw material in the production of field road cement","volume":"31","author":"Wang","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Wuhan Univ. Technol.-Mater. Sci. Ed."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"23","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cemconres.2017.05.017","article-title":"Properties of an aged geopolymer synthesized from calcined ore-dressing tailing of bauxite and slag","volume":"100","author":"Ye","year":"2017","journal-title":"Cem. Concr. Res."},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"359","DOI":"10.1016\/S0927-7757(98)00798-5","article-title":"The surface chemistry of Bayer process solids: A review","volume":"146","author":"Hind","year":"1999","journal-title":"Colloids Surf. A Physicochem. Eng. Asp."},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1877","DOI":"10.1007\/s10973-019-08095-x","article-title":"Using isothermal calorimetry, X-ray diffraction, thermogravimetry and FTIR to monitor the hydration reaction of Portland cements associated with red mud as a supplementary material","volume":"137","author":"Romano","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Therm. Anal. Calorim."},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2477","DOI":"10.1007\/s10973-017-6794-2","article-title":"Hydration of Portland cement with red mud as mineral addition","volume":"131","author":"Romano","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Therm. Anal. Calorim."},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"163","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2010.06.043","article-title":"Effect of red mud addition on the rheological behaviour and on hardened state characteristics of cement mortars","volume":"25","author":"Senff","year":"2011","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6687","DOI":"10.1016\/j.matpr.2020.12.144","article-title":"Fresh and mechanical properties of SCC with fly ash and copper slag as mineral admixtures","volume":"45","author":"Sambangi","year":"2021","journal-title":"Mater. Today Proc."},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"130874","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2023.130874","article-title":"Effect of curing time and temperature on the mechanical properties of green and ultra-high-strength non-sintered aggregate via autoclave technology","volume":"374","author":"Yu","year":"2023","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"118180","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2020.118180","article-title":"Rheological properties of fresh concrete and its application on shotcrete","volume":"243","author":"Liu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Thang, N., Tuan, N., Hiep, D., and Thang, V. (2021). The Potential Use of Waste Rock from Coal Mining for the Application as Recycled Aggregate in Concrete. Proceedings of the International Conference on Innovations for Sustainable and Responsible Mining: ISRM 2020-Volume 1, Springer International Publishing.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-60839-2_29"}],"container-title":["Materials"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1996-1944\/19\/19\/4049\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,28]],"date-time":"2026-09-28T12:51:35Z","timestamp":1790599895000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1996-1944\/19\/19\/4049"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,22]]},"references-count":103,"journal-issue":{"issue":"19","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,10]]}},"alternative-id":["ma19194049"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ma19194049","relation":{},"ISSN":["1996-1944"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1996-1944","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,22]]}}}