{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,29]],"date-time":"2026-09-29T04:56:04Z","timestamp":1790657764757,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":64,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"19","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,24]],"date-time":"2026-09-24T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1790208000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"European Commission","id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/00k4n6c32","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/00k4n6c32","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Materials"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Water-cooled nuclear reactors are equipped with internal structural elements made of grade 300 steels, which are subject to embrittlement over their operational lifetime. More specifically, typical internal components are simultaneously exposed to neutron irradiation and pressurized water at elevated temperatures, making them susceptible to intergranular crack initiation. Irradiation damage accumulation markedly affects plastic flow spreading, which is further coupled with strain localization effects. Concurrent exposure to the reactor coolant also contributes to grain-boundary configuration changes in terms of local chemical composition and the resulting tolerance to applied loading. Our approach for evaluating the material response integrates multiple physical mechanisms applicable to post-irradiation austenitic steels, including strain localization in the form of defect-depleted channels, dislocation pile-ups, and the loss of grain-boundary strength. The above time-dependent effects are evaluated and rationalized in terms of the evolution of the dimensionless factor \u00abR\u00bb, which depends on: (i) the applied loading level, (ii) the irradiation defect size and number density, and (iii) the local grain boundary cohesive energy evolution. The model predictions are consistent with an applied intergranular crack initiation stress of about 700 MPa after combined exposure to pressurized water and neutron irradiation up to 3 dpa at 300 \u00b0C.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ma19194095","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,24]],"date-time":"2026-09-24T13:26:11Z","timestamp":1790256371000},"page":"4095","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Irradiation Embrittlement in Grade-300 Steel Internals: A Comprehensive Description and Evaluation Approach"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"19","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4916-8766","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Christian","family":"Robertson","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"CEA, Service de Recherche en Mat\u00e9riaux et proc\u00e9d\u00e9s Avanc\u00e9s, Universit\u00e9 Paris-Saclay, 91191 Gif-sur-Yvette, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Zitao","family":"Zeng","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"CEA, Service de Recherche en Mat\u00e9riaux et proc\u00e9d\u00e9s Avanc\u00e9s, Universit\u00e9 Paris-Saclay, 91191 Gif-sur-Yvette, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,24]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jnucmat.2003.11.007","article-title":"Dubuisson, Irradiation damage in 304 and 316 stainless steels: Experimental investigation and modelling. Part I: Evolution of the microstructure","volume":"326","author":"Pokor","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Nucl. Mat."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"299","DOI":"10.1016\/S0022-3115(99)00075-6","article-title":"Radiation-induced material changes and susceptibility to intergranular failure of light-water-reactor core internals","volume":"274","author":"Bruemmer","year":"1999","journal-title":"J. Nucl. Mat."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"305","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cossms.2015.04.001","article-title":"Mechanism of dislocation channel-induced irradiation assisted stress corrosion crack initiation in austenitic stainless steel","volume":"19","author":"Murtrey","year":"2015","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Solid State Mat. Sci."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"203","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jnucmat.2008.08.032","article-title":"Localized deformation and IASCC initiation in austenitic stainless steels","volume":"382","author":"Jiao","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Nucl. Mat."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1368","DOI":"10.1080\/14786435.2015.1029560","article-title":"Channel formation and multiplication in irradiated FCC metals: A 3D dislocation dynamics investigation","volume":"95","author":"Gururaj","year":"2015","journal-title":"Philos. Mag. A"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"194","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jnucmat.2015.01.031","article-title":"Post-irradiation plastic deformation in bcc Fe grains investigated by means of 3D dislocation dynamics simulations","volume":"459","author":"Gururaj","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Nucl. Mat."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3748","DOI":"10.1016\/j.actamat.2012.03.041","article-title":"A dislocation dynamics study of the transition from homogeneous to heterogeneous deformation in irradiated body-centered cubic iron","volume":"60","author":"Arsenlis","year":"2012","journal-title":"Acta Mater."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"246","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jnucmat.2010.10.087","article-title":"Impact of localized deformation on IASCC in austenitic stainless steels","volume":"408","author":"Jiao","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Nucl. Mat."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"400","DOI":"10.1063\/1.1657068","article-title":"Dislocation Channeling in Neutron-Irradiated Niobium","volume":"40","author":"Tucker","year":"1969","journal-title":"J. Appl. Phys."},{"key":"ref_10","first-page":"885","article-title":"Localized deformation induced IGSCC and IASCC of austenitic alloys in high temperature water","volume":"261\u2013263","author":"GWas","year":"2004","journal-title":"Key Eng. Mater."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"488","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jnucmat.2018.05.068","article-title":"Tensile properties and deformation microstructure of highly neutron-irradiated 316 stainless steels at low and fast strain rate","volume":"508","author":"Hure","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Nucl. Mater."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"138","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jnucmat.2010.01.029","article-title":"Localized deformation as a key precursor to initiation of intergranular stress corrosion cracking of austenitic stainless steels employed in nuclear power plants","volume":"406","author":"Karlsen","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Nucl. Mater."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"316","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jnucmat.2019.03.001","article-title":"Prediction of irradiation hardening in austenitic stainless steels: Analytical and crystal plasticity studies","volume":"518","author":"Monnet","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Nucl. Mater."},{"key":"ref_14","unstructured":"Berveiller, M., Adjanor, G., Latourte, F., Vidal, J., and Gosset, A. (2017, January 23\u201327). Presentation of the SOTERIA Numerical Platform for the Assessment of Ageing Mechanisms in RPV and Internals. Proceedings of the International Conference on Nuclear Power Plant Life Management, Lyon, France."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"231","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jnucmat.2016.04.017","article-title":"Tanguy, Intergranular stress distributions in polycrystalline aggregates of irradiated stainless steel","volume":"476","author":"Hure","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Nucl. Mater."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103768","DOI":"10.1016\/j.euromechsol.2019.04.003","article-title":"Strain gradient crystal plasticity with evolving length scale: Application to voided irradiated materials","volume":"77","author":"Scherer","year":"2019","journal-title":"Eur. J. Mech. A Solids"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"262","DOI":"10.1016\/j.actamat.2019.06.010","article-title":"Intra-granular localization induced by softening crystal plasticity: Analysis of slip and kink bands localization modes from high resolution FFT-simulations results","volume":"175","author":"Marano","year":"2019","journal-title":"Acta Mater."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"61","DOI":"10.1016\/j.actamat.2017.07.042","article-title":"The role of grain boundary microchemistry in irradiation-assisted stress corrosion cracking of a Fe-13Cr-15Ni alloy","volume":"138","author":"He","year":"2017","journal-title":"Acta Mater."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"415","DOI":"10.1016\/S0079-6425(01)00003-2","article-title":"Models for dislocation cross-slip in close-packed crystal structures: A critical review","volume":"47","author":"Puschl","year":"2002","journal-title":"Prog. Mater. Sci."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kelly, A.A., and Knowles, K.M. (2012). Crystallography and Crystal Defects, John Wiley & Sons.","DOI":"10.1002\/9781119961468"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"225","DOI":"10.1051\/jphys:01968002902-3022500","article-title":"Cross slip of dislocations in the face centered cubic structure","volume":"29","author":"Escaig","year":"1968","journal-title":"J. Phys."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"47","DOI":"10.1016\/S0921-5093(01)01201-1","article-title":"Dislocation substructure in 316L stainless steel under thermal fatigue up to 650 K","volume":"315","author":"Robertson","year":"2001","journal-title":"Mat. Sci. Eng. A"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"153417","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jnucmat.2021.153417","article-title":"Dose-dependent strain localization and embrittlement in ferritic materials: A predictive approach based on sub-grain plasticity modelling","volume":"559","author":"Robertson","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Nucl. Mater."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1241","DOI":"10.1080\/14786437308227997","article-title":"The effect of dislocation self-interaction on the Orowan stress","volume":"28","author":"Bacon","year":"1973","journal-title":"Philos. Mag."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"055008","DOI":"10.1088\/1361-651X\/acd4d6","article-title":"Prediction of inter-granular crack initiation susceptibility in post-irradiated grade 300 steels","volume":"31","author":"Wang","year":"2003","journal-title":"Mod. Sim. Mat. Sci. Eng."},{"key":"ref_26","first-page":"101051","article-title":"Multiscale modelling for fusion and fission materials: The M4F project","volume":"29","author":"Malerba","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Nucl. Ener."},{"key":"ref_27","unstructured":"Hirth, J.P., and Lothe, J. (1992). Theory of Dislocations, Krieger Malabar, University of Virginia. [2nd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"692","DOI":"10.1103\/PhysRev.75.692","article-title":"Quantitative Predictions from Dislocation Models of Crystal Grain Boundaries","volume":"75","author":"Shockley","year":"1949","journal-title":"Phys. Rev."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5380","DOI":"10.1016\/j.actamat.2012.05.002","article-title":"Simulation of dislocation penetration through a general low-angle grain boundary","volume":"60","author":"Liu","year":"2012","journal-title":"Acta Mater."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"319","DOI":"10.1016\/0001-6160(59)90198-1","article-title":"Absolute interfacial energies of [001] tilt and twist boundaries in copper","volume":"7","author":"Gjostein","year":"1959","journal-title":"Acta Met."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1479","DOI":"10.1016\/0001-6160(80)90048-6","article-title":"A microscopic theory of brittle fracture in deformable solids: A relation between ideal work to fracture and plastic work","volume":"28","author":"Jokl","year":"1980","journal-title":"Acta Met."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1035","DOI":"10.1080\/02670836.1996.11665719","article-title":"Two component description of ductile to brittle transition in ferritic steel","volume":"12","author":"Ortner","year":"1996","journal-title":"Mater. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1401","DOI":"10.1016\/0001-6160(87)90087-3","article-title":"Micromechanisms of failure in CMn weld metals","volume":"35","author":"Tweed","year":"1987","journal-title":"Acta Met."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"185","DOI":"10.1016\/0036-9748(84)90503-9","article-title":"Evaluation of the effective surface energy of ferrite in a 26Cr-1Mo ferritic stainless steels","volume":"18","author":"Veistinen","year":"1984","journal-title":"Scr. Met."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"507","DOI":"10.1016\/0001-6160(79)90002-6","article-title":"The effects of segregated impurities on intergranular fracture energy","volume":"27","author":"McMahon","year":"1979","journal-title":"Acta Met."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"401","DOI":"10.1016\/S0927-0256(97)00109-2","article-title":"Atomistic study of dislocation cores in aluminium and copper","volume":"10","author":"Aslanides","year":"1998","journal-title":"Comp. Mat. Sci."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4197","DOI":"10.1080\/14786435.2014.982744","article-title":"Micromechanistic origin of irradiation-assisted stress corrosion cracking","volume":"94","author":"Cui","year":"2014","journal-title":"Philos. Mag."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"151880","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jnucmat.2019.151880","article-title":"Irradiation-assisted stress corrosion cracking susceptibility and mechanical properties related to irradiation-induced microstructures of 304L austenitic stainless steel","volume":"528","author":"Paccou","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Nucl. Mater."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"45","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jnucmat.2019.01.034","article-title":"In situ SEM-EBSD analysis of plastic deformation mechanisms in neutron-irradiated austenitic steel","volume":"517","author":"Gussev","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Nucl. Mater."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"87","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scriptamat.2016.01.017","article-title":"Quantitative analysis of localized stresses in irradiated stainless steels using high resolution electron backscatter diffraction and molecular dynamics modeling","volume":"116","author":"Johnson","year":"2016","journal-title":"Scr. Mater."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"443","DOI":"10.1080\/02678370412331320224","article-title":"Role of irradiated microstructure and microchemistry in irradiation-assisted stress corrosion cracking","volume":"85","author":"Was","year":"2005","journal-title":"Philos. Mag."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"163","DOI":"10.1098\/rsta.1921.0006","article-title":"The phenomena of rupture and flow in solids","volume":"221","author":"Griffith","year":"1921","journal-title":"Phil. Trans. R. Soc. Lond."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"82","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jnucmat.2016.04.003","article-title":"Evaluation of stress corrosion cracking of irradiated 304L stainless steel in PWR environment using heavy ion irradiation","volume":"476","author":"Gupta","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Nucl. Mater."},{"key":"ref_44","unstructured":"(1982). Texture Analysis in Materials Science: Mathematical Methods, Butterwoth & Co."},{"key":"ref_45","unstructured":"Was, G., Busby, J., and Jiao, Z. (2006). The Use of Proton Irradiation to Determine IASCC Mechanisms in Light Water Reactors\u2014Phase 3: Deformation Studies, EPRI."},{"key":"ref_46","unstructured":"Sauzay, M., Osterstock, S., Robertson, C., Degallaix, S., Aubin, V., and Hutar, P. (2007, January 27\u201331). Influence de l\u2019\u00e9lasticit\u00e9 et de la plasticit\u00e9 cristallines sur la distribution des champs m\u00e9caniques \u00e0 la surface des polycristaux. Proceedings of the CFM2007, 18\u00e8me Congr\u00e8s Fran\u00e7ais de M\u00e9canique, Grenoble, France."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4115","DOI":"10.1080\/14786435.2014.978830","article-title":"An extensive 3D dislocation dynamics investigation of stage-I fatigue crack propagation","volume":"94","author":"Reddy","year":"2014","journal-title":"Philos. Mag. A"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"921","DOI":"10.1016\/0036-9748(86)90467-9","article-title":"Dislocation pile-up and grain boundary interactions in 304 stainless steel","volume":"20","author":"Shen","year":"1986","journal-title":"Scr. Met."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"274","DOI":"10.1080\/18811248.2008.9711437","article-title":"Deformation structure in highly irradiated stainless steels","volume":"45","author":"Nishioka","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Nucl. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"152","DOI":"10.1080\/14786435.2013.850548","article-title":"Non-planar grain boundary structures in fcc metals and their role in nanoscale deformation mechanisms","volume":"94","author":"Smith","year":"2014","journal-title":"Philos. Mag."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1345","DOI":"10.1007\/BF02641927","article-title":"Stacking fault energies of seven commercial austenitic stainless steels","volume":"6","author":"Schramm","year":"1975","journal-title":"Met. Trans. A"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1901","DOI":"10.1007\/BF02646563","article-title":"The composition dependence of stacking fault energy in austenitic stainless steels","volume":"8","author":"Rhodes","year":"1977","journal-title":"Met. Trans. A"},{"key":"ref_53","unstructured":"Robertson, C., Dupuy, L., and Hernandez-Mayoral, M. (2021, January 26). Dislocation dynamics: Rationalisation of shear band formation through micro-models. Proceedings of the M4F European project Final Workshop, Madrid, Spain."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bergner, F., Hern\u00e1ndez-Mayoral, M., Heintze, C., Konstantinovic, M.J., Malerba, L., and Pareige, C. (2020). TEM Observation of Loops Decorating Dislocations and Resulting Source Hardening of Neutron-Irradiated Fe-Cr Alloys. Metals, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/met10010147"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"131","DOI":"10.1016\/j.actamat.2015.11.027","article-title":"Effect of neutron flux on the characteristics of irradiation-induced nanofeatures and hardening in pressure vessel steels","volume":"104","author":"Wagner","year":"2016","journal-title":"Acta Mat."},{"key":"ref_56","unstructured":"Robertson, C. (2026, January 14). WP4 overview: Irradiation tolerance. Proceedings of the INNUMAT European Project Final Symposium, Sandviken Sweden."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107686","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijrmhm.2026.107686","article-title":"Dose-dependent irradiation embrittlement in tungsten: A predictive model based on grain plasticity mechanisms","volume":"137","author":"Robertson","year":"2026","journal-title":"Int. J. Refract. Met. Hard Mat."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104235","DOI":"10.1016\/j.engfailanal.2019.104235","article-title":"Analysis of mechanisms inducing corrosion cracking of irradiated austenitic steels and development of a model for prediction of crack initiation","volume":"107","author":"Margolin","year":"2020","journal-title":"Eng. Fail. Anal."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"30","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jnucmat.2003.12.008","article-title":"Irradiation damage in 304 and 316 stainless steels: Experimental investigation and modeling. Part II: Irradiation induced hardening","volume":"326","author":"Pokor","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Nucl. Mater."},{"key":"ref_60","unstructured":"Pokor, C., Massoud, J.P., Wintergerst, M., Toivonen, A., Ehrnsten, U., and Karlsen, W. (2010, January 2\u201330). Determination of the time to failure curve as a function of stress for a highly irradiated AISI 304 stainless steel after constant load tests in simulated PWR water environment. Proceedings of the Fontevraud 7, Avignon, France."},{"key":"ref_61","unstructured":"Conermann, J., Shogan, R., Fujimoto, K., Yonezawa, T., and Yamaguchi, Y. (2005, January 14\u201318). Irradiation effects in a highly irradiated cold worked stainless steel removed from a commercial PWR. Proceedings of the 12th International Conference on Environmental Degradation of Materials in Nuclear Power System\u2014Water Reactors, TMS, Salt Lake City, UT, USA."},{"key":"ref_62","unstructured":"Robertson, C. (2024, January 25). Non-hardening RPV steel embrittlement modelling. Proceedings of the ENTENTE European Project, Final Symposium, Bologna, Italy."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104203","DOI":"10.1103\/PhysRevB.90.104203","article-title":"Exact ab-initio transport coefficients in bcc Fe-X (X = Cr, Cu, Mn, Ni, P, Si) dilute alloys","volume":"90","author":"Messina","year":"2014","journal-title":"Phys. Rev. B"},{"key":"ref_64","unstructured":"Messina, L. (2015). Multiscale Modelling of Atomic Transport. [Ph.D. Thesis, KTH]."}],"container-title":["Materials"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1996-1944\/19\/19\/4095\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,29]],"date-time":"2026-09-29T04:16:14Z","timestamp":1790655374000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1996-1944\/19\/19\/4095"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,24]]},"references-count":64,"journal-issue":{"issue":"19","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,10]]}},"alternative-id":["ma19194095"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ma19194095","relation":{},"ISSN":["1996-1944"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1996-1944","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,24]]}}}