{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,29]],"date-time":"2026-09-29T16:03:22Z","timestamp":1790697802111,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":72,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"19","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,29]],"date-time":"2026-09-29T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1790640000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Materials"],"abstract":"<jats:p>This study presents an interdisciplinary investigation of mortars from the Roman fortress of Sucidava, constructed in the 3rd century AD along the Danube River, at the northern frontier of the Roman Empire. The mortars were characterized using a multi-analytical approach, including macroscopic examination, optical microscopy, cathodoluminescence microscopy, scanning electron microscopy coupled with energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (SEM-EDS), and qualitative phase analysis by X-ray diffraction (XRD). The results highlight the presence of two distinct mortar types: (i) a gray, coarse-grained masonry mortar consistent with opus caementicium, covered by a finishing layer, and (ii) a fine-grained red plaster mortar analogous to opus signinum, as described in ancient architectural treatises. The structural and compositional features of mortars sampled from the eastern wall of the Sucidava Fortress confirm the persistence of advanced Roman mortar technology in this northern frontier region, even after the division of the Roman Empire. The substitution of volcanic ash with bone ash led to the incorporation of phosphorus-bearing compounds, which, according to recent studies, contribute to enhanced mortar performance.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ma19194168","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,29]],"date-time":"2026-09-29T15:14:37Z","timestamp":1790694877000},"page":"4168","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Investigations into Roman Mortar from Sucidava, Romania"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"19","author":[{"given":"Flavio Nicoale","family":"Finta","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Doctoral School of Materials Science and Engineering, National University of Science and Technology POLITEHNICA Bucharest, Splaiul Independen\u021bei, No. 313, 060042 Bucharest, Romania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3398-1197","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Marioara","family":"Abrudeanu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Doctoral School of Materials Science and Engineering, National University of Science and Technology POLITEHNICA Bucharest, Splaiul Independen\u021bei, No. 313, 060042 Bucharest, Romania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7525-1056","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Denis Aurelian","family":"Negrea","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Regional Center of Research & Development for Materials, Processes and Innovative Products Dedicated to the Automotive Industry (CRC&D-AUTO), Pite\u0219ti University Centre, National University of Science and Technology POLITEHNICA Bucharest, 110040 Pite\u0219ti, Romania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sorin Georgian","family":"Moga","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Regional Center of Research & Development for Materials, Processes and Innovative Products Dedicated to the Automotive Industry (CRC&D-AUTO), Pite\u0219ti University Centre, National University of Science and Technology POLITEHNICA Bucharest, 110040 Pite\u0219ti, Romania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7364-956X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Isabela Victoria","family":"Maris","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Mineralogy, Faculty of Geology and Geophysics, University of Bucharest, 1 N. B\u0103lcescu Ave., 011401 Bucharest, Romania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0008-5195-6906","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Florentina","family":"Popa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Regional Center of Research & Development for Materials, Processes and Innovative Products Dedicated to the Automotive Industry (CRC&D-AUTO), Pite\u0219ti University Centre, National University of Science and Technology POLITEHNICA Bucharest, 110040 Pite\u0219ti, Romania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5691-1338","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ecaterina Magdalena","family":"Modan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Regional Center of Research & Development for Materials, Processes and Innovative Products Dedicated to the Automotive Industry (CRC&D-AUTO), Pite\u0219ti University Centre, National University of Science and Technology POLITEHNICA Bucharest, 110040 Pite\u0219ti, Romania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Dorin","family":"Grecu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Theology, Letters, History and Arts, National University of Science and Technology POLITEHNICA Bucharest, Splaiul Independen\u021bei, No. 313, 060042 Bucharest, Romania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ionela Cristina","family":"Gheroghe","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Doctoral School of Materials Science and Engineering, National University of Science and Technology POLITEHNICA Bucharest, Splaiul Independen\u021bei, No. 313, 060042 Bucharest, Romania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Marius","family":"Lungescu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Doctoral School of Materials Science and Engineering, National University of Science and Technology POLITEHNICA Bucharest, Splaiul Independen\u021bei, No. 313, 060042 Bucharest, Romania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6855-450X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mircea","family":"Negru","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Law, Political and Administrative Sciences, Spiru Haret University Bucharest, Soseaua Berceni, No. 34, 041914 Bucharest, Romania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mircea Ionut","family":"Petrescu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Engineering and Management of Metallic Materials Casting, Faculty of Materials Science and Engineering, National University of Science and Technology POLITEHNICA Bucharest, Splaiul Independen\u021bei, No. 313, 060042 Bucharest, Romania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,29]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"Hibovschi, L. (2023, May 04). Vitruvius Marcus Pollio\u2014The Architecture. Available online: https:\/\/www.academia.edu\/2450332\/Vitruvius_Marcus_Pollio_The_Architecture."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"(2023, May 04). Plinius: Naturalis Historia, Book XXXV (35). Available online: https:\/\/penelope.uchicago.edu\/Thayer\/L\/Roman\/Texts\/Pliny_the_Elder\/35*.html."},{"key":"ref_3","unstructured":"Adam, J.-P. (1994). Roman Building: Materials and Techniques, Routledge. Available online: https:\/\/books.google.ro\/books\/about\/Roman_Building.html?id=vchVyCrT9uYC&redir_esc=y."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.1016\/S0950-0618(96)00031-1","article-title":"The role of brick pebbles and dust in conglomerates based on hydrated lime and crushed bricks","volume":"11","author":"Baronio","year":"1997","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"35","DOI":"10.1016\/S0950-0618(99)00045-8","article-title":"Physico-chemical adhesion and cohesion bonds in joint mortars imparting durability to the historic structures","volume":"14","author":"Moropoulou","year":"2000","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lancaster, L.C. (2005). Concrete Vaulted Construction in Imperial Rome, Cambridge University Press. Available online: https:\/\/www.academia.edu\/19137360\/.","DOI":"10.1017\/CBO9780511610516"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"295","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cemconcomp.2004.02.018","article-title":"Composite materials in ancient structures","volume":"27","author":"Moropoulou","year":"2005","journal-title":"Cem. Concr. Compos."},{"key":"ref_8","unstructured":"Valek, J., Groot, C., and Hughes, J. (2012). Cement Microstructures and Durability in Ancient Roman Seawater Concretes: Historic Mortars, HMC 2010 Characteristics and Tests, Springer\u2014RILEM."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Brandon, C.J., Hohlfelder, R.L., Jackson, M.D., Oleson, J.P., Bottalico, L., Cramer, S., Cucitore, R., Gotti, E., Stern, C.R., and Vola, G. (2014). Building for Eternity: The History and Technology of Roman Concrete Engineering in the Sea, Oxbow Books.","DOI":"10.2307\/j.ctvh1dvk5"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1435","DOI":"10.2138\/am-2017-5993CCBY","article-title":"Phillipsite and Al-tobermorite produced by cementitious water-rock reactions in Roman marine concrete","volume":"102","author":"Jackson","year":"2017","journal-title":"Am. Mineral."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"65","DOI":"10.1016\/j.engfracmech.2013.02.007","article-title":"The fracture toughness of an Imperial Roman mortar","volume":"102","author":"Brune","year":"2013","journal-title":"Eng. Fract. Mech."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18484","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1417456111","article-title":"Mechanical resilience and cementitious processes in Imperial Roman architectural mortar","volume":"111","author":"Jackson","year":"2014","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_13","unstructured":"Jackson, M.D. (2025, January 2\u20134). Reactive aggregates in the mortars of ancient Roman concretes: Clues to chemical and mechanical resilience. Proceedings of the 7th Historic Mortars Conference, Padova, Italy."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"301","DOI":"10.2138\/gselements.18.5.301","article-title":"Encarnaci\u00f3n Ruiz-Agudo: Historic Concrete Science: Opus Caementicium to \u201cNatural Cements\u201d","volume":"18","author":"Elsen","year":"2022","journal-title":"Elements"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105484","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cemconcomp.2024.105484","article-title":"The secret of ancient Roman hydraulic mortar: The lesson learnt from the past for future cements","volume":"148","author":"Medeghini","year":"2024","journal-title":"Cem. Concr. Compos."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mociu, N.C., Maftei, C.E., Popovic, I.C., Voicu, G., Buta, C., and Stanescu, M. (2023). Highlighting the Characteristics of Roman Mortars from Ovidiu\u2019s Quadriburgium Archaeological Site, Romania. Buildings, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/buildings13030672"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ghizdavet, Z.D. (2025). Investigations on an Ancient Mortar from Ulpia Traiana Sarmizegetusa Archaeological Site, Romania. Appl. Sci., 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/app15105780"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dilaria, S. (2025). Archaeometry of Ancient Mortar-Based Materials in Roman Regio X and Neighboring Territories: A First Review. Minerals, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/min15070746"},{"key":"ref_19","unstructured":"(2026, May 10). The Roman-Byzantine Fortress in Sucidava. Available online: https:\/\/romania-atractiva.ro\/en\/profiles\/the-roman-byzantine-fortress-in-sucidava."},{"key":"ref_20","unstructured":"(2023, March 10). Sucidava. Available online: https:\/\/mapy.com\/en\/turisticka?source=osm&id=11981412&x."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"191","DOI":"10.30958\/ajhis.11-3-2","article-title":"Discoveries within the Roman and Early Byzantine Fortress of Sucidava (Celeiu), Romania","volume":"11","year":"2025","journal-title":"Athens J. Hist."},{"key":"ref_22","unstructured":"Toropu, O., and T\u0103tulea, C. (1987). Sucidava-Celei, Editura Sport Turism. Available online: https:\/\/biblioteca-digitala.ro."},{"key":"ref_23","unstructured":"(2021, March 01). Romania, Laws\u2014UNESCOWorldHeritage Convention. Available online: https:\/\/whc.unesco.org\/en\/statesparties\/ro."},{"key":"ref_24","unstructured":"(2021, March 01). Romania 3.1\u2014Compendium of Cultural Policies & Trends. Available online: https:\/\/www.culturalpolicies.net."},{"key":"ref_25","unstructured":"Hagni, R.D., and Karakus, M. (2013). Cathodoluminescence Microscopy: A Valuable Technique for Studying Ceramic Materials, Published Online by Barker & Wood, 1986, Cambridge University Press."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chemgeo.2009.01.013","article-title":"Calcite, dolomite and magnesite dissolution kinetics in aqueous solutions at acid to neutral pH, 25 to 150 \u00b0C and 1 to 55 atm pCO2: New constraints on CO2 sequestration in sedimentary basins","volume":"265","author":"Pokrovsky","year":"2009","journal-title":"Chem. Geol."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"519","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1475-4754.2005.00217.x","article-title":"Cuerda seca ceramics from Al-Andalus, Islamic Spain and Portugal (10th\u221212th centuries AD): Investigation with SEM\u2013EDX and cathodoluminescence","volume":"47","author":"Chapoulie","year":"2016","journal-title":"Archaeometry"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"611","DOI":"10.1140\/epjp\/s13360-022-02774-9","article-title":"Digital image analysis on cathodoluminescence microscopy images for ancient ceramic classification: Methods, applications, and perspectives","volume":"137","author":"Odelli","year":"2022","journal-title":"Eur. Phys. J. Plus"},{"key":"ref_29","first-page":"103719","article-title":"Petrographic characterization of historic mortar as a tool in archaeologic study: Examples from two medieval castles of Aosta Valley, Northwestern Italy","volume":"46","author":"Milanesio","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Archaeol. Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cantisani, E., Fratini, F., and Pecchioni, E. (2022). Optical and Electronic Microscope for Minero-Petrographic and Microchemical Studies of Lime Binders of Ancient Mortars. Minerals, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/min12010041"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102698","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mtcomm.2021.102698","article-title":"SEM-EDS and microindentation-driven large-area high-resolution chemomechanical mapping and computational homogenization of cementitious materials","volume":"28","author":"Maragh","year":"2021","journal-title":"Mater. Today Commun."},{"key":"ref_32","first-page":"17","article-title":"Microscopic and Electrochemical Characterization of Alumina Ceramic Films Developed Onto 316l Stainless Steel by Micro-Arc Oxidation in Plasma Electrolysis","volume":"80","author":"Rusu","year":"2018","journal-title":"UPB Sci. Bull. Ser. B"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"734","DOI":"10.1016\/j.matpr.2020.03.472","article-title":"Characterization of ancient mortar for sustainability of an 800 year old heritage site in India","volume":"32","author":"Degloorkar","year":"2020","journal-title":"Mater. Today Proc."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Teodorescu, L., Amara, A.B., Cantin, N., Chapoulie, R., Ducu, C., Ciuca, S., Tulugea, C., Terteci, C., and Abrudeanu, M. (2021). Characterization of Archaeological Artefacts Using Methods Specific to Materials Science: The Case Study of Dacian Ceramics from 2nd c. BC to 1st c. AD. Materials, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/ma14143908"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2346","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jas.2010.04.008","article-title":"Chemical and mineralogical characterization of historic mortars from the Santa Eulalia de B\u00f3veda temple, NW Spain","volume":"37","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Archaeol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"57","DOI":"10.1017\/S1431927608089381","article-title":"The importance of SEM-EDS analysis in the study of old mortars","volume":"14","author":"Adriano","year":"2008","journal-title":"Microsc. Microanal."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"179","DOI":"10.1007\/s12520-022-01645-9","article-title":"SEM-EDS characterization of historic mortar as a tool in archaeometric study: An updated analytical protocol tested on the Roman theatre of Aosta (NW Italy)","volume":"14","author":"Gambino","year":"2022","journal-title":"Archaeol. Anthropol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gr\u0103mescu, A.M. (2025). Material and Structural Characterization of Historical Masonry: Analytical Framework for Restoration Planning: A Case Study. Appl. Sci., 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/app15116176"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"597","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2019.01.233","article-title":"Analytical characterization of ancient mortars from the archaeological roman site of Pis\u00f5es (Beja, Portugal)","volume":"204","author":"Borsoi","year":"2019","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_40","first-page":"74","article-title":"Najel Yaseen: Analysis of Mortar Samples And Mineral Composition from Deir El-Kahf, Jordan","volume":"55","author":"Hamadneh","year":"2025","journal-title":"Arqueol. Iberoam."},{"key":"ref_41","unstructured":"(2023, May 10). Report on Mortar Analysis by X-Ray Diffraction (XRD). Available online: https:\/\/fifehistoricbuildings.org.uk\/wp-content\/uploads\/2019\/09\/Appendix-D-Mortar-analysis-reports.pdf."},{"key":"ref_42","unstructured":"Lycourghiotis, S.A., and Kalapodis, N.A. (2022). Characterization of the Historical Mortars Concerning Ancient Monuments-Experimental Approach. SSRN Electron. J."},{"key":"ref_43","first-page":"457","article-title":"Dwelling the Heritage: Characterization of Lime Mortar and Bricks Used in Forest Research Institute, Uttrakhand, India","volume":"13","author":"Shukla","year":"2022","journal-title":"Int. J. Conserv. Sci."},{"key":"ref_44","first-page":"C4-791\u2013C4-808","article-title":"Les rayons X et l\u2019\u00e9tude des \u0153uvres d\u2019art","volume":"6","author":"Dupouy","year":"1996","journal-title":"J. Phys. IV Fr."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fragata, A., Candeias, C., Ribeiro, J., Braga, C., Fontes, L., Velosa, A., and Rocha, F. (2021). Archaeological and Chemical Investigation on Mortars and Bricks from a Necropolis in Braga, Northwest of Portugal. Materials, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/ma14216290"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"117","DOI":"10.1007\/s10533-008-9198-3","article-title":"From sediment to soil: Floodplain phosphorus transformations at the Danube River","volume":"88","author":"Zehetner","year":"2008","journal-title":"Biogeochemistry"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"39","DOI":"10.1016\/j.geoderma.2008.11.011","article-title":"Phosphorus sorption-desorption in alluvial soils of a young weathering sequence at the Danube River","volume":"149","author":"Lair","year":"2009","journal-title":"Geoderma"},{"key":"ref_48","first-page":"343","article-title":"Accurate determination of the Ca:P ratio in rough hydroxyapatite samples by SEM-EDS, PIXE and RBS\u2014A comparative study","volume":"38","author":"Bailey","year":"2009","journal-title":"X-Ray Spectrom. Int. J."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"301","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jas.2006.05.004","article-title":"Methods of Soil P Analysis in Archaeology","volume":"34","author":"Holliday","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Archaeol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_50","unstructured":"Elliott, J.C. (1994). Structure and Chemistry of the Apatites and Other Calcium Orthophosphates, Elsevier."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104955","DOI":"10.1016\/j.surfin.2024.104955","article-title":"Reinforcement of hydroxyapatite bone cement via thin glycerol-citrate polyester infiltration: Microstructural, mechanical and in-vitro evaluation","volume":"52","author":"Sopcak","year":"2024","journal-title":"Surf. Interfaces"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"eadd1602","DOI":"10.1126\/sciadv.add1602","article-title":"Hot mixing: Mechanistic insights into the durability of ancient Roman concrete","volume":"9","author":"Masic","year":"2023","journal-title":"Sci. Adv."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17056","DOI":"10.1038\/boneres.2017.56","article-title":"Calcium phosphate cements for bone engineering and their biological properties","volume":"5","author":"Xu","year":"2017","journal-title":"Bone Res."},{"key":"ref_54","first-page":"1","article-title":"Calcium phosphate cements: Optimization toward biodegradability","volume":"119","author":"Beucken","year":"2021","journal-title":"Acta Biomater."},{"key":"ref_55","first-page":"21","article-title":"The influence of potassium phosphate and fly ash addition on the setting time and mechanical strengths of magnesium phosphate cements","volume":"82","author":"Vijan","year":"2020","journal-title":"Univ. Politeh. Buchar. Sci. Bull. Ser. B"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"139773","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2024.139773","article-title":"Strengthening the bulk properties of cement mortar through promoted in-situ formation of hydroxyapatite: Feasibility and perspectives","volume":"459","author":"Miah","year":"2025","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1080","DOI":"10.1177\/00037028221085600","article-title":"Physicochemical Changes in Bone Bioapatite During the Late Postmortem Interval Pre- and Post-Burning","volume":"76","year":"2022","journal-title":"Appl. Spectrosc."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1159\/000419232","article-title":"Calcium Phosphates in Oral Biology and Medicine","volume":"15","author":"LeGeros","year":"1991","journal-title":"Monogr. Oral Sci."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1465","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biomaterials.2009.11.050","article-title":"Bioceramics of calcium orthophosphates","volume":"31","author":"Dorozhkin","year":"2010","journal-title":"Biomaterials"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"529","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1015175108668","article-title":"Thermal decomposition of synthesised carbonate hydroxyapatite","volume":"13","author":"Barralet","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Mater. Sci. Mater. Med."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100701","DOI":"10.1016\/j.oceram.2024.100701","article-title":"Comprehensive investigation into thermal stability of AB-type bio- carbonate hydroxyapatite synthesized via heat-treated bovine bone","volume":"20","author":"Jaber","year":"2024","journal-title":"Open Ceram."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1080\/15583058.2023.2256259","article-title":"Chemical, Mineralogical and Mechanical Characterization of Ancient Roman Concrete and Mortar: A Review","volume":"19","author":"Cuevas","year":"2025","journal-title":"Int. J. Archit. Herit."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"193","DOI":"10.1007\/s12520-021-01393-2","article-title":"Mortars, plasters and pigments\u2014Research questions and sampling criteria","volume":"13","author":"Gliozzo","year":"2021","journal-title":"Archaeol. Anthropol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Artioli, G., Secco, M., and Addis, A. (2019). The Vitruvian Legacy: Mortars and Binders Before and After the Roman World, Mineralogical Society of Great Britain and Ireland.","DOI":"10.1180\/EMU-notes.20.4"},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"488","DOI":"10.1017\/eaa.2024.20","article-title":"An Experiment Measuring Water Consumption in Roman Hydrophobic Mortar (opus signinum)","volume":"27","year":"2024","journal-title":"Eur. J. Archaeol."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ion, R.M. (2025). Tremolite-Asbestos Presence in Roman Archaeological Site of Micia, Romania. Crystals, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/cryst15050430"},{"key":"ref_67","first-page":"103132","article-title":"Lime Mortar Technology in Ancient Eastern Roman Provinces","volume":"39","author":"Duran","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Archaeol. Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"34160","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-025-15025-5","article-title":"Synergistic effect of cattle bone and rice husk ash on mechanical and microstructural properties of cement mortar","volume":"15","author":"Mitikie","year":"2025","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_69","first-page":"100590","article-title":"Properties of Roman Structural Mortars in the Province of Asia (Turkey)","volume":"41","year":"2025","journal-title":"Archaeol. Res. Asia"},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"794","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jas.2010.11.002","article-title":"Characterisation of archaeological mortars and plasters from Kyme (Turkey)","volume":"38","author":"Miriello","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Archaeol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_71","first-page":"75","article-title":"Investigation of Mortar from Bulgaria Dated from 5th Century BC to 13th Century AD","volume":"20","author":"Lesigyarski","year":"2016","journal-title":"Archaeol. Bulg."},{"key":"ref_72","first-page":"22","article-title":"Extreme durability in ancient Roman concretes","volume":"97","author":"Jackson","year":"2018","journal-title":"Am. Ceram. Soc. Bull."}],"container-title":["Materials"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1996-1944\/19\/19\/4168\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,29]],"date-time":"2026-09-29T15:19:06Z","timestamp":1790695146000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1996-1944\/19\/19\/4168"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,29]]},"references-count":72,"journal-issue":{"issue":"19","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,10]]}},"alternative-id":["ma19194168"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ma19194168","relation":{},"ISSN":["1996-1944"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1996-1944","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,29]]}}}