{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,23]],"date-time":"2026-10-23T21:06:33Z","timestamp":1792789593746,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":65,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"19","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,30]],"date-time":"2026-09-30T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1790726400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,30]],"date-time":"2026-09-30T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1790726400000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Universiti Kuala Lumpur Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology","id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/026wwrx19","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/026wwrx19","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"Universiti Pertahanan Nasional Malaysia","award":["PS060-UPNM\/2023\/GPPP\/SG\/1"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PS060-UPNM\/2023\/GPPP\/SG\/1"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/00t53pv34","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"award":["PS060-UPNM\/2023\/GPPP\/SG\/1"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PS060-UPNM\/2023\/GPPP\/SG\/1"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/00t53pv34","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Materials"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Solder joints in aerospace, nuclear, and defense electronics are increasingly exposed to ionizing radiation, which creates serious reliability issues. Despite its importance, a comprehensive understanding of the underlying mechanisms and how they vary across radiation types remains lacking. This systematic literature review synthesizes 24 peer-reviewed studies (2000\u20132025) to evaluate radiation-induced microstructural evolution and mechanical degradation in Sn-based solder alloys. Following PRISMA guidelines, data were analyzed across gamma, electron, proton, neutron, and alpha irradiation, covering Sn\u2013Pb, SAC305, AuSn20, SnBi, and related systems. Gamma irradiation predominantly accelerates interfacial diffusion kinetics, resulting in IMC thickening, oxidation, and shear strength reductions. However, the effects are dose-dependent, where low doses temporarily harden the material, while higher doses make it brittle. Lead-free SAC305 alloys exhibit greater radiation sensitivity than Sn\u2013Pb systems, showing accelerated IMC growth, defect accumulation, and lattice instability. Proton and neutron irradiation induce displacement-dominated damage, including defect clustering and Kirkendall voiding. Combination of electron irradiation and thermal cycling produces synergistic degradation exceeding single-stressor effects. By integrating experimental findings with atomistic and multiscale modeling insights, this review links defect generation, interfacial instability, and mechanical degradation using established radiation-enhanced diffusion (RED) principles. The results clarify radiation-type-dependent damage mechanisms, highlight alloy-specific tolerance differences, and identify critical gaps in multi-stressor testing and predictive lifetime modeling. The mechanistic insights presented here serve as a foundation for optimizing solder alloy design and strengthening qualification procedures for radiation-prone electronic applications.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ma19194175","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,30]],"date-time":"2026-09-30T08:17:27Z","timestamp":1790756247000},"page":"4175","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Radiation-Induced Interfacial Degradation and Mechanical Reliability of Sn-Based Solder Joints: A Systematic Review"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"19","author":[{"given":"Norliza","family":"Ismail","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Unmanned Aerial System Research Laboratory, Avionics Section, Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology, Universiti Kuala Lumpur, Dengkil 43800, Selangor, Malaysia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9063-4813","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Nurhakimah","family":"Norhashim","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Unmanned Aerial System Research Laboratory, Avionics Section, Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology, Universiti Kuala Lumpur, Dengkil 43800, Selangor, Malaysia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0407-3031","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Wan Yusmawati Wan","family":"Yusoff","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Physics, Centre for Defence Foundation Studies, Universiti Pertahanan Nasional Malaysia (UPNM), Kem Sungai Besi, Kuala Lumpur 57000, Malaysia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sabarina","family":"Abdul Hamid","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Unmanned Aerial System Research Laboratory, Avionics Section, Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology, Universiti Kuala Lumpur, Dengkil 43800, Selangor, Malaysia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3560-6101","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Nadhiya Liyana","family":"Mohd Kamal","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Unmanned Aerial System Research Laboratory, Avionics Section, Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology, Universiti Kuala Lumpur, Dengkil 43800, Selangor, Malaysia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Zulhilmy","family":"Sahwee","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Unmanned Aerial System Research Laboratory, Avionics Section, Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology, Universiti Kuala Lumpur, Dengkil 43800, Selangor, Malaysia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9790-9023","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Shahrul","family":"Ahmad Shah","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Unmanned Aerial System Research Laboratory, Avionics Section, Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology, Universiti Kuala Lumpur, Dengkil 43800, Selangor, Malaysia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0583-7486","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Atiqah","family":"Mohd Afdzaluddin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Microengineering and Nanoelectronics (IMEN), Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi 43600, Selangor, Malaysia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,30]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"134","DOI":"10.1016\/j.dt.2024.05.013","article-title":"A review of extreme condition effects on solder joint reliability: Understanding failure mechanisms","volume":"41","author":"Ismail","year":"2024","journal-title":"Def. 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