{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,18]],"date-time":"2026-09-18T00:22:49Z","timestamp":1789690969190,"version":"4.0.1"},"reference-count":128,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2015,3,12]],"date-time":"2015-03-12T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1426118400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Food Standards Agency Scotland","award":["FS513005"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["FS513005"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Marine Drugs"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Regular occurrence of brevetoxin-producing toxic phytoplankton in commercial shellfishery areas poses a significant risk to shellfish consumer health. Brevetoxins and  their causative toxic phytoplankton are more limited in their global distribution than most marine toxins impacting commercial shellfisheries. On the other hand, trends in climate change could conceivably lead to increased risk posed by these toxins in UK waters.  A request was made by UK food safety authorities to examine these toxins more closely  to aid possible management strategies, should they pose a threat in the future. At the time  of writing, brevetoxins have been detected in the Gulf of Mexico, the Southeast US coast and in New Zealand waters, where regulatory levels for brevetoxins in shellfish have  existed for some time. This paper reviews evidence concerning the prevalence of brevetoxins and brevetoxin-producing phytoplankton in the UK, together with testing methodologies. Chemical, biological and biomolecular methods are reviewed, including recommendations for further work to enable effective testing. Although the focus here is on the UK, from  a strategic standpoint many of the topics discussed will also be of interest in other parts  of the world since new and emerging marine biotoxins are of global concern.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/md13031224","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2015,3,12]],"date-time":"2015-03-12T11:30:24Z","timestamp":1426159824000},"page":"1224-1254","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":44,"title":["Potential Threats Posed by New or Emerging Marine Biotoxins in UK Waters and Examination of Detection Methodology Used in Their Control: Brevetoxins"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1390-0924","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Andrew","family":"Turner","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre for Environment Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (Cefas), Barrack Road, The Nothe, Weymouth, Dorset DT4 8UB, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Cowan","family":"Higgins","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Agri-food and Biosciences Institute (AFBI), Newforge Lane, Belfast BT9 5PX, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Keith","family":"Davidson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Scottish Association for Marine Science (SAMS), Oban, Argyll PA37 1QA, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Andrea","family":"Veszelovszki","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Scottish Association for Marine Science (SAMS), Oban, Argyll PA37 1QA, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Daniel","family":"Payne","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre for Environment Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (Cefas), Barrack Road, The Nothe, Weymouth, Dorset DT4 8UB, UK"},{"name":"University of Surrey, School of Biosciences and Medicine, Guildford, Surrey GU2 7TE, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"James","family":"Hungerford","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"United States Food and Drug Administration (USFDA), 22201 23rd Dr, S.E., Bothell,  WA 98021, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Wendy","family":"Higman","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre for Environment Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (Cefas), Barrack Road, The Nothe, Weymouth, Dorset DT4 8UB, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2015,3,12]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1030","DOI":"10.1016\/j.toxicon.2012.06.016","article-title":"Characterisation of brevetoxin metabolisms in Karenia. brevis bloom-exposed clams (Mercenaria sp.) by LC-MS\/MS","volume":"60","author":"Abraham","year":"2012","journal-title":"Toxicon"},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"Wang, W. (2007). Development of Novel Liquid Chromatography-Electrospray Tandem Mass Spectrometry Approaches for the Structural Characterisation of Brevetoxins Including in vitro Metabolites. [Ph.D. Theses, University of New Orleans]."},{"key":"ref_3","unstructured":"Gupta, R.C. (2012). Veterinary Toxicology: Basic and Clinical Principles, Elsevier."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"137","DOI":"10.1016\/j.toxicon.2009.11.007","article-title":"Advances in monitoring and toxicity assessment of brevetoxins in molluscan shellfish","volume":"56","author":"Plakas","year":"2010","journal-title":"Toxicon"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"431","DOI":"10.3390\/md6030431","article-title":"Neurotoxic shellfish poisoning","volume":"6","author":"Watkins","year":"2008","journal-title":"Mar. Drugs"},{"key":"ref_6","unstructured":"FAO (Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations) (2004). Marine Biotoxins, FAO. FAO Food and Nutrition Paper 80."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"457","DOI":"10.1016\/0041-0101(82)90009-5","article-title":"Toxicity of two toxins from the Florida red tide marine dinoflagellate, Ptychodiscus brevis","volume":"20","author":"Baden","year":"1982","journal-title":"Toxicon"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1166","DOI":"10.1021\/tx500053f","article-title":"Tissue distribution of amino acid- and lipid-brevetoxins after intravenous administration to C57BL\/6 Mice","volume":"27","author":"Leighfield","year":"2014","journal-title":"Chem. Res. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1082","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fct.2006.01.002","article-title":"The inhibition of CHO-K1-BH4 cell proliferation and induction of chromosomal aberrations by brevetoxins in vitro","volume":"44","author":"Sayer","year":"2006","journal-title":"Food Chem. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1009","DOI":"10.1007\/s00204-009-0443-x","article-title":"Brevetoxins 2, 3, 6,and 9 show variability in potency and cause significant induction of DNA damage and apoptosis in Jurkat E6-1 cells","volume":"83","author":"Murell","year":"2009","journal-title":"Arch. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"EFSA (2010) (2010). EFSA Panel on Contaminants in the Food Chain (CONTAM): Scientific Opinion on marine biotoxins in shellfish\u2014Emerging toxins: Brevetoxin group. EFSA J., 8, 1677.","DOI":"10.2903\/j.efsa.2010.1677"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2","DOI":"10.1021\/np049797o","article-title":"A new polyether ladder compound produced by the dinoflagellate, Karenia brevis","volume":"28","author":"Bourdelais","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Nat. Prod."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"623","DOI":"10.1007\/s10646-008-0241-x","article-title":"Harmful algal toxins of the Florida red tide (Karenia brevis): Natural chemical stressors in South Florida coastal ecosystems","volume":"17","author":"Pierce","year":"2008","journal-title":"Ecotoxicology"},{"key":"ref_14","unstructured":"Walsh, P.J., Smith, S., Fleming, L., Solo-Gabriele, H., and Gerwick, W.I. (2008). Oceans and Human Health: Rosks and Remedies from the Seas, Elsevier."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"965","DOI":"10.1016\/j.hal.2004.11.004","article-title":"Brevetoxin composition in water and marine aerosols along a Florida beach: Assessing potential human exposure to marine biotoxins","volume":"4","author":"Pierce","year":"1995","journal-title":"Harmful Algae"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"650","DOI":"10.1289\/ehp.7500","article-title":"Initial evaluation of the effects of aerosolized Florida red tide toxins (brevetoxins) in persons with Asthma","volume":"113","author":"Fleming","year":"2005","journal-title":"Environ. Health Perspect."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"205","DOI":"10.3109\/08958378.2011.558936","article-title":"Repeated exposure to aerosolized brevetoxin-3 induced prolonged airway hyperresponsiveness and lung inflammation in sheep","volume":"23","author":"Zaias","year":"2011","journal-title":"Inhal. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_18","unstructured":"Cabado, A.G., and Vieites, J.M. (2012). New Trends in Marine and Freshwater Toxins, Nova Science Publishers."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"157","DOI":"10.1002\/(SICI)1522-7189(199907\/08)7:4<157::AID-NT52>3.0.CO;2-#","article-title":"Monitoring brevetoxins during a Gymnodinium breve red tide: Comparison of sodium channel specific cytotoxicity assay and mouse bioassay for determination of neurotoxic shellfish toxins in shellfish extracts","volume":"7","author":"Dickey","year":"1999","journal-title":"Nat. Toxins"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"634","DOI":"10.1016\/j.toxicon.2006.11.003","article-title":"Comparative effects of the toxic dinoflagellate CKarenia brevis on clearance rates in juveniles of four bivalve molluscs from Florida, USA","volume":"49","author":"Leverone","year":"2007","journal-title":"Toxicon"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"85","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aquatox.2011.10.011","article-title":"Effects of Karenia brevis on clearance rates and bioaccumulation of brevetoxins in benthic suspension feeding invertebrates","volume":"106","author":"Echevarria","year":"2012","journal-title":"Aquat. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"156","DOI":"10.1016\/j.hal.2011.10.020","article-title":"Karenia: The biology and ecology of a toxic genus","volume":"14","author":"Brand","year":"2012","journal-title":"Harmful Algae"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"349","DOI":"10.1016\/j.hal.2008.07.007","article-title":"A large and prolonged bloom of Karenia mikimotoi in Scottish waters in 2006","volume":"8","author":"Davidson","year":"2009","journal-title":"Harmful Algae"},{"key":"ref_24","unstructured":"Silke, J., O\u2019Beirn, F., and Cronin, M. (2005). Marenia mikimotoi: An Exceptional Dinoflagellate Bloom in Western Irish Waters, Summer 2005, Marine Institute. Marine Environment and Health Series, No. 21, 2005."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5829","DOI":"10.1016\/S0040-4039(02)01171-1","article-title":"Gymnocin-A, a cytotoxic polyether from the notorious red tide dinoflagellate, Gymnodinium mikimotoi","volume":"43","author":"Satake","year":"2002","journal-title":"Tetrahedron Lett."},{"key":"ref_26","unstructured":"Lassus, P., Erard, E., Gentien, P., and Marcaillou, C. (1995). Harmful Marine Algal Blooms, Lavoisier Science Publishers."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"27","DOI":"10.1016\/0025-326X(91)90441-T","article-title":"Transport of toxic dinoflagellate cysts via ships\u2019 ballast water","volume":"22","author":"Hallegraeff","year":"1991","journal-title":"Mar. Poll Bull."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"215","DOI":"10.2216\/i0031-8884-40-3-215.1","article-title":"Occurrence and distribution of Karenia brevisulcata (Dinophyceae) during the 1998 summer toxic outbreaks on the central east coast of New Zealand","volume":"40","author":"Chang","year":"2001","journal-title":"Phycologia"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"47","DOI":"10.1016\/j.hal.2011.10.002","article-title":"Novel toxins produced by the dinoflagellate Karenia brevisulcata","volume":"13","author":"Holland","year":"2012","journal-title":"Harmful Algae"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5850","DOI":"10.1021\/ol502700h","article-title":"Brevisulcatic acids, marine ladder-frame polyethers from the red tide dinoflagellate Karenia brevisulcate in New Zealand","volume":"16","author":"Suzuki","year":"2014","journal-title":"Org. Lett."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19","DOI":"10.1016\/j.toxicon.2014.03.004","article-title":"A sensitive LC-MS\/MS assay for brevisulcenal and brevisulcatic acid toxins produced by the dinoflagellate Karenia brevisculcata","volume":"84","author":"Harwood","year":"2014","journal-title":"Toxicon"},{"key":"ref_32","unstructured":"Satake, M. (2014, January 27\u201331). Novel toxins from the New Zealand red tide dinoflagellate Karenia brevisulcata. Proceedings of the International Conference on Harmful Algae, Wellington, New Zealand."},{"key":"ref_33","unstructured":"Bresnan, E. Personal Communication."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"165","DOI":"10.1111\/j.0022-3646.2004.02-149.x","article-title":"Comparative morphology and molecular phylogenetic analysis of three new species of the genus Karenia (Dinophyceae) from New Zealand","volume":"40","author":"Haywood","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Phycol."},{"key":"ref_35","unstructured":"Anderson, D.M., White, A.D., and Baden, D.G. (1985). Toxic Dinoflagellates, Elsevier Science Publishers."},{"key":"ref_36","unstructured":"Fukuyo, Y., Takano, H., Chihara, M., and Matsuoka, K. (1990). Red Tide Organisms in Japan\u2014An Illustrated Taxonomic Guide, Uchida Rokakuho."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"399","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecss.2012.09.019","article-title":"Harmful algal blooms: How strong is the evidence that nutrient ratios and forms influence their occurrence?","volume":"115","author":"Davidson","year":"2012","journal-title":"Est. Coast. Shelf Sci."},{"key":"ref_38","first-page":"65","article-title":"Anthropogenic nutrient enrichment and blooms of harmful micro-algae","volume":"50","author":"Gowen","year":"2012","journal-title":"Oceanogr. Mar. Biol."},{"key":"ref_39","unstructured":"Smayda, T.J. Harmful Algal Bloom Communities in Scottish Coastal Waters: Relationship to Fish Farming and Regional Comparisons\u2014A Review. The Scottish Government, 2005, Available online: http:\/\/www.scotland.gov.uk\/Resource\/Doc\/92174\/0022031.pdf."},{"key":"ref_40","unstructured":"Reguera, B., Blanco, J., Fernandez, M.L., and Wyatt, T. The Occurrence of Harmful Algae in Ballast Water Discharges to Scottish Ports and the Effects of Mid-Water Exchange in Regional Seas. Proceedings of the 8th International Conference on Harmful Algae."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"246","DOI":"10.2216\/i0031-8884-40-3-246.1","article-title":"Harmful dinoflagellate resting cysts in ships\u2019 ballast tank sediments: Potential for introduction into English and Welsh waters","volume":"40","author":"Hamer","year":"2001","journal-title":"Phycologia"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"627","DOI":"10.1139\/f2012-008","article-title":"Coastal ship traffic: A significant introduction vector for potentially harmful dinoflagellates in eastern Canada. Can","volume":"69","author":"Roy","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Fish. Aquat. Sci."},{"key":"ref_43","unstructured":"(2010). Report of the Workshop on Harmful Phyto-Plankton that Could Potentially be Trans-Ported or Introduced by Ballast Water (WKHABAL), ICES. ICES CM 2010\/ACOM: 67."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"220","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1529-8817.2010.00815.x","article-title":"Ocean climate change, phytoplankton community responses, and harmful algal blooms: A formidable predictive challenge","volume":"46","author":"Hallegraeff","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Phycol."},{"key":"ref_45","unstructured":"Bresnan, E., Fernand, L., Davidson, K., Edwards, M., Milligan, S., Gowan, R., Silke, J., Kr\u00f6ger, S., and Raine, R. MCCIP Science Review. Available online: www.mccip.org.uk\/arc."},{"key":"ref_46","unstructured":"Bresnan, E., Davidson, K., Edwards, M., Fernand, L., Gowen, R., Hall, A., Kennington, K., Milligan, S., Raine, R., and Silke, J. (2013). Harmful Algal Blooms, Marine Climate Change Impact Partnership Report Card."},{"key":"ref_47","first-page":"1063","article-title":"Temperature and phytoplankton growth in the sea","volume":"70","author":"Eppley","year":"1972","journal-title":"Fish. Bull."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"881","DOI":"10.1038\/nature02808","article-title":"Impact of climate change on marine pleagic phenology and trophic mismatch","volume":"430","author":"Edwards","year":"2004","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"336","DOI":"10.1016\/j.toxicon.2011.07.001","article-title":"Update of risk assessments of main marine biotoxins in the European Union","volume":"58","author":"Paredes","year":"2011","journal-title":"Toxicon"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"32","DOI":"10.1016\/j.toxicon.2008.04.174","article-title":"Monitoring of brevetoxins in the Kareina brevis bloom-exposed Eastern oyster (Crassostrea virginica)","volume":"52","author":"Plakas","year":"2008","journal-title":"Toxicon"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113","DOI":"10.1080\/20026491051695","article-title":"The effects of harmful algal blooms on aquatic organisms","volume":"10","author":"Landsberg","year":"2002","journal-title":"Rev. Fish. Sci."},{"key":"ref_52","unstructured":"Cabado, A.G., and Vieites, J.M. (2012). New Trends in Marine and Freshwater Toxins, Nova Publishers."},{"key":"ref_53","unstructured":"Anderson, P. (1996). Design and Implementation of Some Harmful Algal Monitoring Systems IOC Technical Series No. 44, UNESCO."},{"key":"ref_54","unstructured":"Karlson, B., Cusack, C., and Bresnan, E. (2012). Microscopic and Molecular Methods for Quantitative Phytoplankton Analysis, UNESCO. IOC Manuals and Guides, No. 55. (IOC\/2010\/MG\/55)."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6210","DOI":"10.1128\/AEM.70.10.6210-6219.2004","article-title":"Flow sorting of marine bacterioplankton after fluorescence In situ hybridization","volume":"70","author":"Sekar","year":"2004","journal-title":"Appl. Environ. Micro"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4293","DOI":"10.1128\/AEM.00161-06","article-title":"Fluorescence in situ hybridization-flow cytometry-cell sorting-based method for separation and enrichment of type I and type II methanotroph populations","volume":"72","author":"Kalyuzhnaya","year":"2006","journal-title":"Appl. Environ. Micro"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"540","DOI":"10.4319\/lom.2013.11.540","article-title":"Identification and quantification of toxic and non-toxic strains of the harmful dinoflagellate Alexandrium tamarense using fluorescence in situ hybridization and flow cytometry","volume":"11","author":"Davidson","year":"2013","journal-title":"Limnol. Oceanogr. Methods"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"685","DOI":"10.1016\/j.hal.2006.02.003","article-title":"Use of the FlowCAM for semi-automated recognition and enumeration of red tide cells (Karenia brevis) in natural plankton samples","volume":"5","author":"Buskey","year":"2006","journal-title":"Harmful Algae"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6896","DOI":"10.1007\/s11356-012-1437-4","article-title":"Continuous automated imaging-in-flow cytometry for detection and early warning of Karenia brevis blooms in the Gulf of Mexico","volume":"20","author":"Campbell","year":"2013","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1361","DOI":"10.3390\/md12031361","article-title":"Rapid and accurate identification by real-time PCR of biotoxin-producing dinoflagellates from the family gymnodiniaceae","volume":"12","author":"Smith","year":"2014","journal-title":"Mar. Drugs"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"37","DOI":"10.1007\/s10872-006-0030-1","article-title":"Satellite detection of red tide in Ariake Sound 1998\u20132201","volume":"62","author":"Ishizaka","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Oceanogr."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101","DOI":"10.1080\/01431161.2010.538089","article-title":"An adaptive approach to detect high biomass algal blooms from EO chlorophyll-a data in support of harmful algal bloom monitoring","volume":"3","author":"Shutler","year":"2012","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Lett."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"163","DOI":"10.1016\/j.hal.2013.11.003","article-title":"Satellite discrimination of Karenia mikimotoi and Phaeocystis harmful algal blooms in European coastal waters: Merged classification of ocean colour data","volume":"31","author":"Kurekin","year":"2014","journal-title":"Harmful Algae"},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"151","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jmarsys.2008.05.016","article-title":"Skill assessment for an operational algal bloom forecast system","volume":"76","author":"Stumpf","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Mar. Syst."},{"key":"ref_65","unstructured":"Hess, P., Amzil, Z., Belin, C., Comp\u00e8re, C., Lassus, P., and M\u00e9nesguen, A. (,  2012). Evolution of European monitoring systems for shellfish toxins\u2014An increased need for the surveillance of phytoplankton. Proceedings of the 14th International Conference on Harmful Algae, Heraklion Crete, Greek."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"315","DOI":"10.1023\/B:JAPH.0000047788.31312.4f","article-title":"Monitoring of the toxic dinoflagellate Karenia brevis using gyroxanthin-based detection methods","volume":"16","author":"Richardson","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Appl. Phycol."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1233","DOI":"10.1111\/j.0022-3646.2003.03-019.x","article-title":"Takayama gen. nov (Gymnodiniales, Dinophyceae), a new genus of unarmored dinoflagellates with sigmoid apical grooves, including the description of two new species","volume":"39","author":"Salas","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Phycol."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"640","DOI":"10.2216\/0031-8884(2005)44[640:KASNGD]2.0.CO;2","article-title":"Karlodinium australe sp. nov. (Gymnodiniales, Dinophyceae), a new potentially ichthyotoxic unarmoured dinoflagellate from lagoonal habitats of south-eastern Australia","volume":"44","author":"Salas","year":"2005","journal-title":"Phycologia"},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"467","DOI":"10.4319\/lo.2000.45.2.0467","article-title":"Optical discrimination of a phytoplankton species in natural mixed populations","volume":"45","author":"Kirkpatrick","year":"2000","journal-title":"Limnol. Oceanogr."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"749","DOI":"10.1016\/j.hal.2006.03.005","article-title":"Improved monitoring of HABs using autonomous underwater vehicles (AUV)","volume":"5","author":"Robbins","year":"2006","journal-title":"Harmful Algae"},{"key":"ref_71","first-page":"346","article-title":"Development of an ICR mouse bioassay for toxicity evaluation in neurotoxic poisoning toxins-contaminated shellfish","volume":"26","author":"Wong","year":"2013","journal-title":"Biomed. Environ. Sci."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"356","DOI":"10.5740\/jaoacint.SGEStewart","article-title":"The laboratory mouse in routine food safety testing for marine algal biotoxins and harmful algal bloom toxin research: Past, present and future","volume":"97","author":"Stewart","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. AOAC Intl."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2109","DOI":"10.3390\/toxins5112109","article-title":"Risk assessment of shellfish toxins","volume":"5","author":"Munday","year":"2012","journal-title":"Toxins"},{"key":"ref_74","unstructured":"Steidinger, K.A., Landsberg, J.H., Tomas, C.R., and Vargo, G.A. (2004). Harmful Algae 2002. Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission, Florida Institute of Oceanography and Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission of UNESCO, UNESCO."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"677","DOI":"10.1016\/j.toxicon.2004.07.027","article-title":"Brevetoxin metabolism and elimination in the Eastern oyster (Crassostrea virginica) after controlled exposures to Karenia brevis","volume":"44","author":"Plakas","year":"2004","journal-title":"Toxicon"},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"455","DOI":"10.1016\/j.toxicon.2004.02.017","article-title":"LC\/MS analysis of brevetoxin metabolites in the Eastern oyster (Crassostrea virginica)","volume":"43","author":"Wang","year":"2004","journal-title":"Toxicon"},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104","DOI":"10.1016\/j.toxicon.2006.04.015","article-title":"Characterisation of polar brevetoxin derivatives isolated from Karenia. brevis cultures and natural blooms","volume":"48","author":"Abraham","year":"2006","journal-title":"Toxicon"},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"91","DOI":"10.1016\/S0041-0101(03)00123-5","article-title":"Implication of brevetoxin B1 and PbTx-3 in neurotoxic shellfish poisoning in New Zealand by isolation and quantitative determination with liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry","volume":"42","author":"Nozawa","year":"2003","journal-title":"Toxicon"},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"981","DOI":"10.1016\/S0041-0101(99)00191-9","article-title":"Neurotoxic shellfish poisoning and brevetoxin metabolites: A case study from Florida","volume":"38","author":"Poli","year":"2000","journal-title":"Toxicon"},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"161","DOI":"10.1007\/s00128-002-0170-y","article-title":"Brevetoxin concentrations in marine aerosol: Human exposure levels during a Karenia brevis harmful algal bloom","volume":"70","author":"Pierce","year":"2003","journal-title":"Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_81","first-page":"514","article-title":"Liquid chromatographic mass spectrometric methods for the determination of marine polyether toxins","volume":"85","author":"Dickey","year":"1992","journal-title":"Bull. Exotic Pathol. Soc."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"277","DOI":"10.1002\/elps.1150180216","article-title":"Analysis of brevetoxins by micellar electrokinetic capillary chromatography and laser-induced fluorescence detection","volume":"18","author":"Shea","year":"1997","journal-title":"Electrophoresis"},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"621","DOI":"10.1289\/ehp.7499","article-title":"Natural and derivative brevetoxins: Historical background, multiplicity and effects","volume":"113","author":"Baden","year":"2005","journal-title":"Environ. Health Perspect."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"721","DOI":"10.1016\/S0041-0101(01)00267-7","article-title":"Confirmation of brevetoxin metabolism in the Eastern oyster (Crassostrea Virginia) by controlled exposures to pure toxins and to Karenia brevis cultures","volume":"40","author":"Plakas","year":"2002","journal-title":"Toxicon"},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"779","DOI":"10.1016\/j.toxicon.2004.03.007","article-title":"Comparative concentrations of brevetoxins PbTx-2, PbTx-3, BTX-B1 and BTX-B5 in cockle, Austrovenus stutchburyi, greenshell mussel, Perna canaliculus, and Pacific oyster, Crassostrea gigas, involved neurotoxic shellfish poisoning in New Zealand","volume":"43","author":"Ishida","year":"2004","journal-title":"Toxicon"},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1815","DOI":"10.1021\/ac00107a010","article-title":"On-line high-performance liquid chromatography-electrospray ionisation mass spectrometry for the determinatino of brevetoxins in \u201cred tide\u201d algae","volume":"67","author":"Hua","year":"1995","journal-title":"Anal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115","DOI":"10.1016\/0021-9673(96)00470-0","article-title":"On-line chromatography-electrospray ionisation mass spectrometry for determination of the brevetoxin profile in natural \u201cred tide\u201d algae blooms","volume":"750","author":"Hua","year":"1996","journal-title":"J. Chrom. A"},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"376","DOI":"10.1021\/ac990433o","article-title":"Electrospray ionisation tandem mass spectrometry for structural elucidation of protonated brevetoxins in red tide algae","volume":"72","author":"Hua","year":"2000","journal-title":"Anal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Njapau, H., Trujillo, S., van Egmond, H., and Park, D.L. (2006). Mycotoxins and Phycotoxins: Advances in Determination, Toxicology and Exposure Management, Wageningen Academic.","DOI":"10.3920\/978-90-8686-585-7"},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"701","DOI":"10.1016\/j.toxicon.2004.03.002","article-title":"Confirmation of brevetoxin metabolism in cockle, Austrovenus stutchburyi, and greenshell mussel, Perna canaliculus, associated with New Zealand neurotoxic shellfish poisoning, by controlled exposure to Karenia brevis culture","volume":"43","author":"Ishida","year":"2004","journal-title":"Toxicon"},{"key":"ref_91","first-page":"18","article-title":"Results of analyses for brevetoxins and pinnatoxins in Rangaunu Harbour oysters, 1993\u20132008. Prepared for NZ Food Safety Authority","volume":"1453","author":"McNabb","year":"2008","journal-title":"Cawthron"},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8826","DOI":"10.1021\/ac901341c","article-title":"Enhanced collision-induced decomposition efficiency and unravelling of fragmentation pathways for anionic adducts of brevetoxins in negative ion electrospray mass spectrometry","volume":"81","author":"Wang","year":"2009","journal-title":"Anal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_93","unstructured":"Steidinger, K.A., Landsberg, J.H., Thomas, C.R., and Vargo, G.A. (2004). Harmful Algae 2002; Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission, Florida Institute of Oceanography, and Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission of UNESCO, UNESCO."},{"key":"ref_94","first-page":"2455","article-title":"Enhanced detection of the algal toxin PbTx-2 in marine waters by atmospheric pressure chemical ionization mass spectrometry rapid commun","volume":"28","author":"Mead","year":"2014","journal-title":"Mass Spectrom."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"944","DOI":"10.1021\/tx700441w","article-title":"Semisynthesis of S-desoxybrevetoxin-B2 and brevetoxin-B2, and assessment of their acute toxicities","volume":"21","author":"Selwood","year":"2008","journal-title":"Chem. Res. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_96","unstructured":"Selwood, A.I. Personal Communication."},{"key":"ref_97","unstructured":"McNabb, P. (, January May). OVerview of ten years experience using LCMS for biotoxin monitoring. Proceedings of the Marine and Freshwater Toxin Symposium, Baiona, Spain."},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1097","DOI":"10.5740\/jaoacint.11-272","article-title":"Determination of brevetoxins in shellfish by LC\/MS\/MS: Single laboratory validation","volume":"95","author":"McNabb","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. AOAC Int."},{"key":"ref_99","unstructured":"Harwood, D.T. (, January October). Karenia brevisulcata toxins: A threat to New Zealand aquaculture?. Proceedings of the International Conference on Harmful Algae, Wellington, New Zealand."},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"261","DOI":"10.1016\/j.toxicon.2005.04.006","article-title":"Use of two detection methods to discriminate ciguatoxins from brevetoxins: Application to great barracuda from Florida Keys","volume":"46","author":"Tiedeken","year":"2005","journal-title":"Toxicon"},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"190","DOI":"10.1006\/abio.1993.1476","article-title":"Tetrazolium-based cell bioassay for neurotoxins active on voltage-sensitive sodium channels: Semiautomated assay for saxitoxins, brevetoxins, and ciguatoxins","volume":"214","author":"Manger","year":"1993","journal-title":"Anal. Biochem."},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"735","DOI":"10.1016\/S0040-4020(97)10336-2","article-title":"Isolation and structure of a new brevetoxin analog, brevetoxin B2, from greenshell mussels from New Zealand","volume":"54","author":"Murata","year":"1998","journal-title":"Tetrahedron"},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"884","DOI":"10.1016\/j.talanta.2006.12.036","article-title":"Biosensors to detect marine toxins: Assessing seafood safety","volume":"72","author":"Campas","year":"2007","journal-title":"Talanta"},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"497","DOI":"10.1016\/j.toxicon.2009.09.022","article-title":"Bioassay methods for detection of N-palmitoylbrevetoxin-B2 (BTX-B4)","volume":"55","author":"Munday","year":"2010","journal-title":"Toxicon"},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"229","DOI":"10.5740\/jaoacint.SGEManger","article-title":"Flow cytometric-membrane potential detection of sodium channel active marine toxins: Application to ciguatoxins in fish muscle and feasibility of automating saxitoxin detection","volume":"97","author":"Manger","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. AOAC Int."},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4868","DOI":"10.3390\/md12094868","article-title":"A new cytotoxicity assay for brevetoxins using fluorescence microscopy","volume":"12","author":"McCall","year":"2014","journal-title":"Mar. Drugs"},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rochat, H., and Marin-Eauclaire, M.F. (2000). Animal Toxins: Facts and Protocols, Birkhauser Verlag.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-0348-8466-2"},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"825","DOI":"10.1016\/j.toxicon.2007.06.013","article-title":"Intrinsic potency of synthetically prepared brevetoxin cysteine metabolites BTX-B2 and desocyBTX-B2","volume":"50","author":"Wang","year":"2007","journal-title":"Toxicon"},{"key":"ref_109","unstructured":"(2011). AOAC Official Method 2011.27 Paralytic Shellfish Toxins (PSTs) in Shellfish. Receptor Binding Assay. First Action 2011, AOAC International."},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"193","DOI":"10.1002\/19970505NT4","article-title":"Complex behaviour of marine animal tissue extracts in the competitive binding assay of brevetoxins with rat brain synaptosomes","volume":"5","author":"Whitney","year":"1997","journal-title":"Nat. Toxins"},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"189","DOI":"10.1002\/nt.2620020407","article-title":"Development of rapid and sensitive high throughput pharmacologic assays for marine phycotoxins","volume":"2","author":"Finley","year":"1994","journal-title":"Nat. Toxins"},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"85","DOI":"10.1016\/j.hal.2012.06.003","article-title":"Development of a competitive fluorescence-based synaptosomes binding assay for brevetoxins","volume":"19","author":"McCall","year":"2012","journal-title":"Harmful Algae"},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"307","DOI":"10.5740\/jaoacint.SGEMcCall","article-title":"Development and utilization of a competitive fluorescence-based receptor binding assay for site 5 voltage gated sodium channel ligands brevetoxin and ciguatoxin","volume":"97","author":"McCall","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. AOAC Int."},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1387","DOI":"10.1016\/0041-0101(91)90126-C","article-title":"An enzyme immunoassay for the detection of Florida red tide brevetoxins","volume":"29","author":"Trainer","year":"1991","journal-title":"Toxicon"},{"key":"ref_115","unstructured":"Tosteson, T.R. Antibody production and development of a radioimmunoassay for the PbTx-2 type brevetoxins. Ciguatera: Proceedings of the Third International Conference on Ciguatera."},{"key":"ref_116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Botana, L.M. (2008). Seafood and Freshwater Toxins: Pharmacology, Physiology and Detection, CRC Press. [2nd ed.].","DOI":"10.1201\/9781420007541"},{"key":"ref_117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"239","DOI":"10.1016\/j.trac.2010.10.010","article-title":"A European perspective on progress in moving away from the mouse bioassay for marine-toxin analysis","volume":"30","author":"Campbell","year":"2011","journal-title":"Trends Anal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"179","DOI":"10.1289\/ehp.02110179","article-title":"A competitive ELISA to detect brevetoxins from Karenia brevis (formerly Gymnodinium breve) in seawater, shellfish and mammalian body fluid","volume":"110","author":"Naar","year":"2002","journal-title":"Environ. Health Perspect."},{"key":"ref_119","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"563","DOI":"10.1021\/es0612605","article-title":"Optimisation of blood collection card method\/ELISA for monitoring exposure of bottlenose dolphin to brevetoxin-producing red tides","volume":"41","author":"Maucher","year":"2007","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_120","unstructured":"ISSC (2009, January 17\u201323). Interstate Shellfish Sanitation Conference. Proceedings of the Summary of Action 2009 Biennial Meeting, Manchester, NH, USA."},{"key":"ref_121","unstructured":"Abraham, A. Personal communication."},{"key":"ref_122","unstructured":"Rubio, F. Personal communication."},{"key":"ref_123","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2824","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bmcl.2009.03.103","article-title":"Surface plasmon resonance-based detection of ladder-shaped polyethers by inhibition detection method","volume":"19","author":"Mouri","year":"2009","journal-title":"Bioorg. Med. Chem. Lett."},{"key":"ref_124","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9414","DOI":"10.3390\/s91109414","article-title":"Use of biosensors as alternatives to current regulatory methods for marine biotoxins","volume":"9","author":"Vilarino","year":"2009","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_125","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1267","DOI":"10.1016\/S0041-0101(02)00132-0","article-title":"Novel electrochemical immunosensors for seafood toxin analysis","volume":"40","author":"Kreuzer","year":"2002","journal-title":"Toxicon"},{"key":"ref_126","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"578","DOI":"10.1021\/es051272a","article-title":"Detection of marine toxins, brevetoxin-3 and saxitoxin, in seawater using neuronal networks","volume":"40","author":"Kulagina","year":"2006","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_127","unstructured":"Leao-Martins, J. (, January May). Solid phase immunoaffinity extraction prior to LCMS of Brevetoxins. Proceedings of the Marine and Freshwater Toxin Symposium, Baiona, Spain."},{"key":"ref_128","unstructured":"Plakas, S. Personal Communication."}],"container-title":["Marine Drugs"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1660-3397\/13\/3\/1224\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T20:43:24Z","timestamp":1760215404000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1660-3397\/13\/3\/1224"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2015,3,12]]},"references-count":128,"journal-issue":{"issue":"3","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2015,3]]}},"alternative-id":["md13031224"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/md13031224","relation":{},"ISSN":["1660-3397"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1660-3397","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2015,3,12]]}}}