{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,29]],"date-time":"2026-09-29T09:09:10Z","timestamp":1790672950281,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":49,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"7","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2019,7,20]],"date-time":"2019-07-20T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1563580800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Marine Drugs"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Pinnatoxins (PnTXs) are emerging neurotoxins that were discovered about 30 years ago. They are solely produced by the marine dinoflagellate Vulcanodinium rugosum, and may be transferred into the food chain, as they have been found in various marine invertebrates, including bivalves. No human intoxication has been reported to date although acute toxicity was induced by PnTxs in rodents. LD50 values have been estimated for the different PnTXs through the oral route. At sublethal doses, all symptoms are reversible, and no neurological sequelae are visible. These symptoms are consistent with impairment of central and peripheral cholinergic network functions. In fact, PnTXs are high-affinity competitive antagonists of nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs). Moreover, their lethal effects are consistent with the inhibition of muscle nAChRs, inducing respiratory distress and paralysis. Human intoxication by ingestion of PnTXs could result in various symptoms observed in episodes of poisoning with natural nAChR antagonists. This review updates the available data on PnTX toxicity with a focus on their mode of action on cholinergic networks and suggests the effects that could be extrapolated on human physiology.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/md17070425","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2019,7,22]],"date-time":"2019-07-22T02:55:37Z","timestamp":1563764137000},"page":"425","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":17,"title":["Pinnatoxins\u2019 Deleterious Effects on Cholinergic Networks: From Experimental Models to Human Health"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"17","author":[{"given":"Nicolas","family":"Delcourt","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Poison Control Centre, Toulouse-Purpan University Hospital and Toulouse NeuroImaging Centre (ToNIC), INSERM1214, Toulouse-Purpan University Hospital, 31059 Toulouse, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Emmeline","family":"Lagrange","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neurology, Reference Center of Neuromuscular Disease, Grenoble University Hospital, 38000 Grenoble, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9431-2010","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Eric","family":"Abadie","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratoire Environnement Ressources du Languedoc-Roussillon, Centre for Marine Biodiversity, Exploitation and Conservation (MARBEC), IRD, Institut Fran\u00e7ais de Recherche pour l\u2019Exploitation de la Mer (Ifremer), CNRS, Universit\u00e9 de Montpellier, CS30171, 34200 Sete Cedex 03, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Val\u00e9rie","family":"Fessard","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Toxicology of Contaminants Unit, ANSES\u2014French Agency for Food, Environmental and Occupational Health &amp; Safety, 35306 Foug\u00e8res, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jean-Marc","family":"Fr\u00e9my","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Retired from ANSES\u2014French Agency for Food, Environmental and Occupational Health &amp; Safety, 94701 Maisons-Alfort, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jean-Paul","family":"Vernoux","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Research Unit EA 4651 Aliments Bioproc\u00e9d\u00e9s Toxicologie Environnements (ABTE), Normandie University, 14000 Caen, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Marie-B\u00e9n\u00e9dicte","family":"Peyrat","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Risk Assessment Department, ANSES\u2014French Agency for Food, Environmental and Occupational Health &amp; Safety, 94701 Maisons-Alfort, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Thomas","family":"Maignien","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Risk Assessment Department, ANSES\u2014French Agency for Food, Environmental and Occupational Health &amp; Safety, 94701 Maisons-Alfort, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Nathalie","family":"Arnich","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Risk Assessment Department, ANSES\u2014French Agency for Food, Environmental and Occupational Health &amp; Safety, 94701 Maisons-Alfort, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0693-8994","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jordi","family":"Molg\u00f3","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institut des Sciences du Vivant Fr\u00e9d\u00e9ric Joliot, Service d\u2019Ing\u00e9nierie Mol\u00e9culaire des Prot\u00e9ines (SIMOPRO), Commissariat \u00e0 l\u2019Energie Atomique et aux \u00e9nergies alternatives (CEA) Saclay, Universit\u00e9 Paris-Saclay, F-91191 Gif-sur-Yvette, France"},{"name":"Institut des Neurosciences Paris-Saclay, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS), UMR 9197 CNRS\/Universit\u00e9 Paris-Sud, F-91198 Gif-sur-Yvette, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2214-2611","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"C\u00e9sar","family":"Mattei","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Mitochondrial and Cardiovascular Pathophysiology (MITOVASC), Cardiovascular Mechanotransduction, UMR CNRS 6015, INSERM U1083, Angers University, 49045 Angers, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,7,20]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","first-page":"33","article-title":"The isolation and bioactivities of pinnatoxin","volume":"9","author":"Zheng","year":"1990","journal-title":"Chin. 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