{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,12]],"date-time":"2026-09-12T03:33:17Z","timestamp":1789183997162,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":107,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"11","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2019,10,29]],"date-time":"2019-10-29T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1572307200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Marine Drugs"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The fight against cancer represents a great challenge for researchers and, for this reason, the search for new promising drugs to improve cancer treatments has become inevitable. Oceans, due to their wide diversity of marine species and environmental conditions have proven to be precious sources of potential natural drugs with active properties. As an example, in this context several studies performed on sponges, tunicates, mollusks, and soft corals have brought evidence of the interesting biological activities of the molecules derived from these species. Also, echinoderms constitute an important phylum, whose members produce a huge number of compounds with diverse biological activities. In particular, this review is the first attempt to summarize the knowledge about starfishes and their secondary metabolites that exhibited a significant anticancer effect against different human tumor cell lines. For each species of starfish, the extracted molecules, their effects, and mechanisms of action are described.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/md17110617","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2019,10,31]],"date-time":"2019-10-31T05:18:26Z","timestamp":1572499106000},"page":"617","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":36,"title":["Bright Spots in the Darkness of Cancer: A Review of Starfishes-Derived Compounds and Their Anti-Tumor Action"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"17","author":[{"given":"Valentina","family":"Lazzara","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biological, Chemical and Pharmaceutical Sciences and Technologies (STEBICEF), University of Palermo, 90128 Palermo, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8772-7143","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Vincenzo","family":"Arizza","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biological, Chemical and Pharmaceutical Sciences and Technologies (STEBICEF), University of Palermo, 90128 Palermo, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9821-5891","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Claudio","family":"Luparello","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biological, Chemical and Pharmaceutical Sciences and Technologies (STEBICEF), University of Palermo, 90128 Palermo, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Manuela","family":"Mauro","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biological, Chemical and Pharmaceutical Sciences and Technologies (STEBICEF), University of Palermo, 90128 Palermo, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6437-9409","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mirella","family":"Vazzana","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biological, Chemical and Pharmaceutical Sciences and Technologies (STEBICEF), University of Palermo, 90128 Palermo, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,10,29]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1568","DOI":"10.1200\/JCO.2018.36.15_suppl.1568","article-title":"Global Burden of Disease Cancer Collaboration Global, regional, and national cancer incidence, mortality, years of life lost, years lived with disability, and disability-adjusted life-years for 29 cancer groups, 2006 to 2016: A systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease study","volume":"36","author":"Fitzmaurice","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Clin. Oncol."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pfeffer, C.M., and Singh, A.T. (2018). Apoptosis: A Target for Anticancer Therapy. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 19.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms19020448"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21","DOI":"10.1038\/nrg1748","article-title":"The epigenetic progenitor origin of human cancer","volume":"7","author":"Feinberg","year":"2006","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Genet."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"687","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1751-7915.2010.00221.x","article-title":"Natural products for cancer chemotherapy","volume":"4","author":"Demain","year":"2011","journal-title":"Microb. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Aung, T., Qu, Z., Kortschak, R., and Adelson, D. (2017). Understanding the Effectiveness of Natural Compound Mixtures in Cancer through Their Molecular Mode of Action. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 18.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms18030656"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"41","DOI":"10.1159\/000443404","article-title":"Natural Products as a Vital Source for the Discovery of Cancer Chemotherapeutic and Chemopreventive Agents","volume":"25","author":"Cragg","year":"2016","journal-title":"Med. Princ. Pract."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"83","DOI":"10.4103\/0975-7406.171700","article-title":"Exploring the ocean for new drug developments: Marine pharmacology","volume":"8","author":"Malve","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Pharm. Bioallied Sci."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14","DOI":"10.3390\/md201014","article-title":"New Marine Derived Anticancer Therapeutics\u2014A Journey from the Sea to Clinical Trials","volume":"2","author":"Jimeno","year":"2004","journal-title":"Mar. Drugs"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"561","DOI":"10.4062\/biomolther.2016.181","article-title":"Marine-Derived Pharmaceuticals\u2014Challenges and Opportunities","volume":"24","author":"Lindequist","year":"2016","journal-title":"Biomol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"R944","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cub.2005.11.026","article-title":"Echinoderms","volume":"15","author":"Amemiya","year":"2005","journal-title":"Curr. Biol."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Khotimchenko, Y. (2018). Pharmacological Potential of Sea Cucumbers. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 19.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms19051342"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"341","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jtcme.2017.06.007","article-title":"Medicinal and health benefit effects of functional sea cucumbers","volume":"8","author":"Pangestuti","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Tradit. Complement. Med."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mah, C.L., and Blake, D.B. (2012). Global Diversity and Phylogeny of the Asteroidea (Echinodermata). PLoS ONE, 7.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0035644"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Malyarenko, T., Malyarenko, O., Kicha, A., Ivanchina, N., Kalinovsky, A., Dmitrenok, P., Ermakova, S., and Stonik, V. (2018). In Vitro Anticancer and Proapoptotic Activities of Steroidal Glycosides from the Starfish Anthenea aspera. Mar. Drugs, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/md16110420"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"189","DOI":"10.3390\/md14100189","article-title":"Three New Cytotoxic Polyhydroxysteroidal Glycosides from Starfish Craspidaster hesperus","volume":"14","author":"Kang","year":"2016","journal-title":"Mar. Drugs"},{"key":"ref_16","unstructured":"Gomes, A.R., Rocha-Santos, T., and Duarte, A.C. (2017). Recent studies of polar steroids from starfish: structures, biological activities and biosynthesis. Advances in Natural Products Discovery, Nova Publishers. Chemistry Research and Applications."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"740","DOI":"10.1002\/cbdv.200900344","article-title":"Chemical Constituents and Bioactivities of Starfish","volume":"8","author":"Dong","year":"2011","journal-title":"Chem. Biodivers."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kicha, A.A., Dinh, T.H., Ivanchina, N.V., Malyarenko, T.V., Kalinovsky, A.I., Popov, R.S., Ermakova, S.P., Tran, T.T.T., and Doan, L.P. (2014). Three New Steroid Biglycosides, Plancisides A, B, and C, from the Starfish Acanthaster planci. Nat. Prod. Commun., 9.","DOI":"10.1177\/1934578X1400900912"},{"key":"ref_19","unstructured":"(2019, August 28). Craig Howe, SC7586. Photo of Acanthaster Planci. Available online: https:\/\/sealifecollection.org\/p\/7586."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"129","DOI":"10.5897\/AJPP11.208","article-title":"Apoptosis induced in human breast cancer cell line by Acanthaster planci starfish extract compared to tamoxifen","volume":"6","author":"Mutee","year":"2012","journal-title":"Afr. J. Pharm. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"407","DOI":"10.1002\/jat.3034","article-title":"Cytotoxic and apoptotic activities of the plancitoxin I from the venom of crown-of-thorns starfish (Acanthaster planci) on A375.S2 cells: Cytotoxic and apoptotic activities of starfish venom","volume":"35","author":"Lee","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Appl. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7","DOI":"10.1016\/j.yexmp.2015.05.001","article-title":"Plancitoxin I from the venom of crown-of-thorns starfish (Acanthaster planci) induces oxidative and endoplasmic reticulum stress associated cytotoxicity in A375.S2 cells","volume":"99","author":"Lee","year":"2015","journal-title":"Exp. Mol. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"761","DOI":"10.1016\/j.etap.2014.08.021","article-title":"Antioxidative and anticancer activities of various ethanolic extract fractions from crown-of-thorns starfish (Acanthaster planci)","volume":"38","author":"Lee","year":"2014","journal-title":"Environ. Toxicol. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ha, D.T., Kicha, A.A., Kalinovsky, A.I., Malyarenko, T.V., Popov, R.S., Malyarenko, O.S., Ermakova, S.P., Thuy, T.T.T., Long, P.Q., and Ivanchina, N.V. (2019). Asterosaponins from the tropical starfish Acanthaster planci and their cytotoxic and anticancer activities in vitro. Nat. Prod. Res.","DOI":"10.1080\/14786419.2019.1585845"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1231","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cclet.2009.05.012","article-title":"A new polyhydroxysteroidal glycoside from the starfish Anthenea chinensis","volume":"20","author":"Ma","year":"2009","journal-title":"Chin. Chem. Lett."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"590","DOI":"10.1021\/np9007188","article-title":"Polyhydroxysteroidal Glycosides from the Starfish Anthenea chinensis","volume":"73","author":"Ma","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Nat. Prod."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1700553","DOI":"10.1002\/cbdv.201700553","article-title":"Six New Polyhydroxysteroidal Glycosides, Anthenosides S1 - S6, from the Starfish Anthenea sibogae","volume":"15","author":"Kicha","year":"2018","journal-title":"Chem. Biodivers."},{"key":"ref_28","first-page":"243","article-title":"Records of sea star (Echinodermata, Asteroidea) diversity in a disturbed tropical seagrass meadow","volume":"16","author":"Fairoz","year":"2018","journal-title":"AMZ"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Malyarenko, T., Ivanchina, N., Malyarenko, O., Kalinovsky, A., Dmitrenok, P., Evtushenko, E., Minh, C., and Kicha, A. (2018). Two New Steroidal Monoglycosides, Anthenosides A1 and A2, and Revision of the Structure of Known Anthenoside A with Unusual Monosaccharide Residue from the Starfish Anthenea aspera. Molecules, 23.","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules23051077"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"639","DOI":"10.1007\/s00227-010-1588-0","article-title":"Ontogenetic habitat shift, population growth, and burrowing behavior of the Indo-Pacific beach star, Archaster typicus (Echinodermata; Asteroidea)","volume":"158","author":"Bos","year":"2011","journal-title":"Mar. Biol."},{"key":"ref_31","unstructured":"(2019, August 28). iNaturalist.org. Available online: https:\/\/www.inaturalist.org\/observations\/7459612."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3826","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bmcl.2010.04.005","article-title":"Two new asterosaponins, archasterosides A and B, from the Vietnamese starfish Archaster typicus and their anticancer properties","volume":"20","author":"Kicha","year":"2010","journal-title":"Bioorg. Med. Chem. Lett."},{"key":"ref_33","unstructured":"Shah, F., and Surati, S. (2019, October 27). \u201cAsterias amurensis\u201d (On-Line), Animal Diversity Web. Available online: https:\/\/animaldiversity.org\/accounts\/Asterias_amurensis\/."},{"key":"ref_34","unstructured":"(2019, August 28). Commons.wikimedia.org. Available online: https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:\u6d77\u661f(\u6b63\u9762).JPGG."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"321","DOI":"10.5650\/jos.61.321","article-title":"The anti-tumor activities of cerebrosides derived from sea cucumber Acaudina molpadioides and starfish Asterias amurensis in vitro and in vivo","volume":"61","author":"Du","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Oleo Sci."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1466","DOI":"10.1271\/bbb.110126","article-title":"Isolation and Anti-Fatty Liver Activity of a Novel Cerebroside from the Sea Cucumber Acaudina molpadioides","volume":"75","author":"Xu","year":"2011","journal-title":"Biosci. Biotechnol. Biochem."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"767","DOI":"10.1007\/s00280-007-0422-y","article-title":"Tumor specific cytotoxicity of glucosylceramide","volume":"60","author":"Oku","year":"2007","journal-title":"Cancer Chemother. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"E72","DOI":"10.1152\/ajpendo.90634.2008","article-title":"\u03b2-Glycosphingolipids improve glucose intolerance and hepatic steatosis of the Cohen diabetic rat","volume":"296","author":"Zigmond","year":"2009","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol. Endocrinol. Metab."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1695","DOI":"10.1021\/np9002299","article-title":"Cerebrosides of the Halotolerant Fungus Alternaria raphani Isolated from a Sea Salt Field","volume":"72","author":"Wang","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Nat. Prod."},{"key":"ref_40","unstructured":"(2019, August 28). Flickr.com. Available online: https:\/\/www.flickr.com\/photos\/a_semenov\/6055892593."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4633","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bmcl.2008.07.017","article-title":"A novel peptide from \u03b15 helix of Asterina pectinifera cyclin B conjugated to HIV-Tat49\u201357 with cytotoxic and apoptotic effects against human cancer cells","volume":"18","author":"Lou","year":"2008","journal-title":"Bioorg. Med. Chem. Lett."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"493","DOI":"10.1080\/07391102.2005.10531227","article-title":"Homology Model of the CDK1\/cyclin B Complex","volume":"22","author":"McGrath","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Biomol. Struct. Dyn."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"856","DOI":"10.1248\/cpb.58.856","article-title":"Polyhydroxy Steroids and Saponins from China Sea Starfish Asterina pectinifera and Their Biological Activities","volume":"58","author":"Peng","year":"2010","journal-title":"Chem. Pharm. Bull."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Malyarenko, O.S., Malyarenko, T.V., Kicha, A.A., Ivanchina, N.V., and Ermakova, S.P. (2019). Effects of Polar Steroids from the Starfish Patiria (=Asterina) pectinifera in Combination with X-Ray Radiation on Colony Formation and Apoptosis Induction of Human Colorectal Carcinoma Cells. Molecules, 24.","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules24173154"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"277","DOI":"10.5483\/BMBRep.2009.42.5.277","article-title":"Chemopreventive effects of polysaccharides extract from Asterina pectinifera on HT-29 human colon adenocarcinoma cells","volume":"42","author":"Nam","year":"2009","journal-title":"BMB Rep."},{"key":"ref_46","first-page":"1405","article-title":"Breast Cancer Chemopreventive Activity of Polysaccharides from Starfish in vitro","volume":"16","author":"Nam","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Microbiol. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"987","DOI":"10.1007\/s12257-011-0226-0","article-title":"Cancer chemopreventive effects of starfish polysaccharide in human breast cancer cells","volume":"16","author":"Lee","year":"2011","journal-title":"Biotechnol. Bioprocess. Eng."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1141","DOI":"10.1007\/978-94-024-1079-2_91","article-title":"Fermented Asterina pectinifera with Cordyceps militaris Mycelia Induced Apoptosis in B16F10 Melanoma Cells","volume":"Volume 975","author":"Lee","year":"2017","journal-title":"Taurine 10"},{"key":"ref_49","unstructured":"(2019, August 28). Inventaire National du Patrimoine Naturel (INPN). Available online: https:\/\/inpn.mnhn.fr\/espece\/cd_nom\/529966."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1280","DOI":"10.1016\/j.steroids.2011.06.006","article-title":"Cariniferosides A\u2013F and other steroidal biglycosides from the starfish Asteropsis carinifera","volume":"76","author":"Malyarenko","year":"2011","journal-title":"Steroids"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1986","DOI":"10.1007\/s11172-012-0275-3","article-title":"Asteropsiside A and other asterosaponins from the starfish Asteropsis carinifera","volume":"61","author":"Malyarenko","year":"2012","journal-title":"Russ. Chem. Bull."},{"key":"ref_52","unstructured":"(2019, August 28). Commons.wikimedia.org. Available online: https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Astropecten_polyacanthus.jpg."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1044","DOI":"10.1248\/cpb.c13-00490","article-title":"Steroidal Constituents from the Starfish Astropecten polyacanthus and Their Anticancer Effects","volume":"61","author":"Thao","year":"2013","journal-title":"Chem. Pharm. Bull."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"54","DOI":"10.1080\/14786419.2017.1329733","article-title":"Polar steroid derivatives from the Vietnamese starfish Astropecten polyacanthus","volume":"32","author":"Vien","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nat. Prod. Res."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"50","DOI":"10.1017\/S1755267215000317","article-title":"Intertidal Echinoderms (Astroidea, Echinoidea, Ophiuroidea) from Hormuz Island in the Strait of Hormuz (Persian Gulf, Iran)","volume":"2015","author":"Pourvali","year":"2015","journal-title":"Mar. Biodivers. Rec."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"315","DOI":"10.1248\/bpb.b13-00705","article-title":"Asterosaponins from the Starfish Astropecten monacanthus Suppress Growth and Induce Apoptosis in HL-60, PC-3, and SNU-C5 Human Cancer Cell Lines","volume":"37","author":"Thao","year":"2014","journal-title":"Biol. Pharm. Bull."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1764","DOI":"10.1021\/np400492a","article-title":"Anti-inflammatory Asterosaponins from the Starfish Astropecten monacanthus","volume":"76","author":"Thao","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Nat. Prod."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"285","DOI":"10.1007\/BF02977793","article-title":"New cytotoxic sulfated saponins from the starfish Certonardoa semiregularis","volume":"28","author":"Wang","year":"2005","journal-title":"Arch. Pharm. Res."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"384","DOI":"10.1021\/np020507i","article-title":"Bioactive Sterols from the Starfish Certonardoa semiregularis","volume":"66","author":"Wang","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Nat. Prod."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1649","DOI":"10.1021\/np020234r","article-title":"New Saponins from the Starfish Certonardoa semiregularis","volume":"65","author":"Wang","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Nat. Prod."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"435","DOI":"10.1248\/cpb.51.435","article-title":"Four New Saponins from the Starfish Certonardoa semiregularis","volume":"51","author":"Wang","year":"2003","journal-title":"Chem. Pharm. Bull."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"584","DOI":"10.1021\/np030427u","article-title":"Cytotoxic Sterols and Saponins from the Starfish Certonardoa semiregularis","volume":"67","author":"Wang","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Nat. Prod."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1654","DOI":"10.1021\/np049869b","article-title":"Additional Cytotoxic Sterols and Saponins from the Starfish Certonardoa semiregularis","volume":"67","author":"Wang","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Nat. Prod."},{"key":"ref_64","unstructured":"(2019, August 28). Jungledragon.com. Available online: https:\/\/www.jungledragon.com\/image\/69746\/choriaster_granulatus.html."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2623","DOI":"10.1080\/14786419.2018.1463223","article-title":"Granulatosides D, E and other polar steroid compounds from the starfish Choriaster granulatus. Their immunomodulatory activity and cytotoxicity","volume":"33","author":"Ivanchina","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nat. Prod. Res."},{"key":"ref_66","unstructured":"Lane, D.J.W., Vandenspiegel, D., and Singapore Science Centre (2003). A Guide to Sea Stars and Other Echinoderms of Singapore, Singapore Science Centre."},{"key":"ref_67","unstructured":"(2019, August 28). iNaturalist.org. Available online: https:\/\/www.inaturalist.org\/taxa\/349594-Craspidaster-hesperus."},{"key":"ref_68","unstructured":"(2019, October 03). Sea Star|Echinoderm|Britannica.com. Available online: https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/animal\/sea-star."},{"key":"ref_69","unstructured":"(2019, August 28). Flickr.com. Available online: https:\/\/www.flickr.com\/photos\/crappywildlifephotography\/1473849241."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2335","DOI":"10.5012\/bkcs.2014.35.8.2335","article-title":"Steroids from the Cold Water Starfish Ctenodiscus crispatus with Cytotoxic and Apoptotic Effects on Human Hepatocellular Carcinoma and Glioblastoma Cells","volume":"35","author":"Quang","year":"2014","journal-title":"Bull. Korean Chem. Soc."},{"key":"ref_71","unstructured":"(2019, August 28). Western Australian Museum Collections, Available online: http:\/\/museum.wa.gov.au\/online-collections\/names\/Culcita-novaeguineae."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"337","DOI":"10.1021\/np0401617","article-title":"Bioactive Asterosaponins from the Starfish Culcita novaeguineae","volume":"68","author":"Tang","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Nat. Prod."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"22","DOI":"10.1016\/j.brainres.2010.11.093","article-title":"Novaeguinoside II inhibits cell proliferation and induces apoptosis of human brain glioblastoma U87MG cells through the mitochondrial pathway","volume":"1372","author":"Zhou","year":"2011","journal-title":"Brain Res."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"458","DOI":"10.1055\/s-2005-871215","article-title":"Three New Asterosaponins from the Starfish Culcita novaeguineae and their Bioactivity","volume":"71","author":"Tang","year":"2005","journal-title":"Planta Med."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"235","DOI":"10.1007\/s11060-006-9136-y","article-title":"Asterosaponin 1, a cytostatic compound from the starfish Culcita novaeguineae, functions by inducing apoptosis in human glioblastoma U87MG cells","volume":"79","author":"Cheng","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Neurooncol."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"284","DOI":"10.1021\/np8004858","article-title":"Cytotoxic Asterosaponins Capable of Promoting Polymerization of Tubulin from the Starfish Culcita novaeguineae","volume":"72","author":"Tang","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Nat. Prod."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1010","DOI":"10.1080\/10286020.2015.1041930","article-title":"Asterosaponins and glycosylated polyhydroxysteroids from the starfish Culcita novaeguineae and their cytotoxic activities","volume":"17","author":"Ngoan","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Asian Nat. Prod. Res."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lu, Y., Li, H., Wang, M., Liu, Y., Feng, Y., Liu, K., and Tang, H. (2018). Cytotoxic Polyhydroxysteroidal Glycosides from Starfish Culcita novaeguineae. Mar. Drugs, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/md16030092"},{"key":"ref_79","unstructured":"(2019, August 28). Commons.wikimedia.org. Available online: https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Luzon_Sea_Star_(Echinaster_luzonicus)_with_Comb_Jellies_(Coeloplana_astericola)_(red_and_white_patches)_Tanjung_Kubur,_Lembeh_Strait,_Sulawesi,_Indonesia.jpg."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Malyarenko, O., Dyshlovoy, S., Kicha, A., Ivanchina, N., Malyarenko, T., Carsten, B., Gunhild, V., Stonik, V., and Ermakova, S. (2017). The Inhibitory Activity of Luzonicosides from the Starfish Echinaster luzonicus against Human Melanoma Cells. Mar. Drugs, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/md15070227"},{"key":"ref_81","unstructured":"(2019, August 28). Flickr.com. Available online: https:\/\/www.flickr.com\/photos\/85180530@N02\/28196905180."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fedorov, S.N., Shubina, L.K., Kicha, A.A., Ivanchina, N.V., Kwak, J.Y., Jin, J.O., Bode, A.M., Dong, Z., and Stonik, V.A. (2008). Proapoptotic and Anticarcinogenic Activities of Leviusculoside G from the Starfish Henricia leviuscula and Probable Molecular Mechanism. Nat. Prod. Commun., 3.","DOI":"10.1177\/1934578X0800301003"},{"key":"ref_83","unstructured":"(2019, August 28). iNaturalist.org. Available online: https:\/\/www.inaturalist.org\/photos\/10219414."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"166","DOI":"10.1002\/cbdv.200900402","article-title":"Four New Asterosaponins, Hippasteriosides A\u2013D, from the Far Eastern Starfish Hippasteria kurilensis","volume":"8","author":"Kicha","year":"2011","journal-title":"Chem. Biodivers."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1541","DOI":"10.1021\/np049610t","article-title":"Phrygiasterol, a Cytotoxic Cyclopropane-Containing Polyhydroxysteroid, and Related Compounds from the Pacific Starfish Hippasteria p hrygiana","volume":"68","author":"Levina","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Nat. Prod."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"119","DOI":"10.1016\/j.steroids.2014.05.027","article-title":"Asterosaponins from the Far Eastern starfish Leptasterias ochotensis and their anticancer activity","volume":"87","author":"Malyarenko","year":"2014","journal-title":"Steroids"},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4418","DOI":"10.3390\/md13074418","article-title":"Four New Sulfated Polar Steroids from the Far Eastern Starfish Leptasterias ochotensis: Structures and Activities","volume":"13","author":"Malyarenko","year":"2015","journal-title":"Mar. Drugs"},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ivanchina, N.V., Kalinovsky, A.I., Kicha, A.A., Malyarenko, T.V., Dmitrenok, P.S., Ermakova, S.P., and Stonik, V.A. (2012). Two New Asterosaponins from the Far Eastern Starfish Lethasterias fusca. Nat. Prod. Commun., 7.","DOI":"10.1177\/1934578X1200700711"},{"key":"ref_89","unstructured":"(2019, August 28). Logbookimmersioni.it. Available online: http:\/\/www.logbookimmersioni.it\/biologia\/narcissia-canariensis\/stella-marina-canaria\/."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2988","DOI":"10.3390\/md8122988","article-title":"Cytotoxicity on Human Cancer Cells of Ophidiacerebrosides Isolated from the African Starfish Narcissia canariensis","volume":"8","author":"Farokhi","year":"2010","journal-title":"Mar. Drugs"},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"474","DOI":"10.1080\/10286020.2016.1235038","article-title":"Steroid glycosides from the starfish Pentaceraster gracilis","volume":"19","author":"Vien","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Asian Nat. Prod. Res."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"646","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2011.02.013","article-title":"Hallmarks of Cancer: The Next Generation","volume":"144","author":"Hanahan","year":"2011","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S78","DOI":"10.1016\/j.semcancer.2015.03.001","article-title":"Broad targeting of resistance to apoptosis in cancer","volume":"35","author":"Mohammad","year":"2015","journal-title":"Semin. Cancer Biol."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"87","DOI":"10.1186\/1756-9966-30-87","article-title":"Apoptosis in cancer: From pathogenesis to treatment","volume":"30","author":"Wong","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Exp. Clin. Cancer Res."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4274","DOI":"10.3390\/md12084274","article-title":"Cytotoxic and Apoptosis-Inducing Activity of Triterpene Glycosides from Holothuria scabra and Cucumaria frondosa against HepG2 Cells","volume":"12","author":"Wang","year":"2014","journal-title":"Mar. Drugs"},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1202","DOI":"10.3390\/md13031202","article-title":"Anticancer Activity of Sea Cucumber Triterpene Glycosides","volume":"13","author":"Aminin","year":"2015","journal-title":"Mar. Drugs"},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2939","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bmcl.2017.05.003","article-title":"Cytotoxic triterpene diglycosides from the sea cucumber Stichopus horrens","volume":"27","author":"Cuong","year":"2017","journal-title":"Bioorg. Med. Chem. Lett."},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"959","DOI":"10.1016\/j.dci.2010.04.004","article-title":"Centrocins: Isolation and characterization of novel dimeric antimicrobial peptides from the green sea urchin, Strongylocentrotus droebachiensis","volume":"34","author":"Li","year":"2010","journal-title":"Dev. Comp. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Solstad, R.G., Li, C., Isaksson, J., Johansen, J., Svenson, J., Stensv\u00e5g, K., and Haug, T. (2016). Novel Antimicrobial Peptides EeCentrocins 1, 2 and EeStrongylocin 2 from the Edible Sea Urchin Echinus esculentus Have 6-Br-Trp Post-Translational Modifications. PLoS ONE, 11.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0151820"},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"366","DOI":"10.3390\/md16100366","article-title":"Antimicrobial and Antibiofilm Activity of a Recombinant Fragment of \u03b2-Thymosin of Sea Urchin Paracentrotus lividus","volume":"16","author":"Spinello","year":"2018","journal-title":"Mar. Drugs"},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"203","DOI":"10.1016\/j.dci.2018.05.002","article-title":"Identification of a novel antimicrobial peptide from the sea star Patiria pectinifera","volume":"86","author":"Kim","year":"2018","journal-title":"Dev. Comp. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"329","DOI":"10.3390\/md17060329","article-title":"Marine-Derived Anticancer Agents: Clinical Benefits, Innovative Mechanisms, and New Targets","volume":"17","author":"Pereira","year":"2019","journal-title":"Mar. Drugs"},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8200","DOI":"10.18632\/oncotarget.3362","article-title":"Marine compounds inhibit growth of multiple myeloma in vitro and in vivo","volume":"6","author":"Steiner","year":"2015","journal-title":"Oncotarget"},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"795","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopha.2017.08.054","article-title":"In vitro, In silico and In vivo Antitumor Activity of Crude Methanolic Extract of Tetilla dactyloidea (Carter, 1869) on DEN Induced HCC in a Rat Model","volume":"95","author":"Krishnan","year":"2017","journal-title":"Biomed. Pharmacother."},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"826","DOI":"10.1002\/pros.23788","article-title":"Sea cucumber extract TBL-12 inhibits the proliferation, migration, and invasion of human prostate cancer cells through the p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase and intrinsic caspase apoptosis pathway","volume":"79","author":"Yuan","year":"2019","journal-title":"Prostate"},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"769","DOI":"10.1039\/C8NP00087E","article-title":"Chemical synthesis of marine saponins","volume":"36","author":"Xiao","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nat. Prod. Rep."},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"49","DOI":"10.4103\/jmedsci.jmedsci_126_17","article-title":"Marine pharmacology: Potential, challenges, and future in India","volume":"38","author":"Singh","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Med Sci."}],"container-title":["Marine Drugs"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1660-3397\/17\/11\/617\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T13:30:21Z","timestamp":1760189421000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1660-3397\/17\/11\/617"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2019,10,29]]},"references-count":107,"journal-issue":{"issue":"11","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,11]]}},"alternative-id":["md17110617"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/md17110617","relation":{},"ISSN":["1660-3397"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1660-3397","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2019,10,29]]}}}