{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,30]],"date-time":"2026-09-30T17:13:46Z","timestamp":1790788426757,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":135,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,4,2]],"date-time":"2022-04-02T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1648857600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Marine Drugs"],"abstract":"<jats:p>This paper examined the toxins naturally produced by marine dinoflagellates and their effects on increases in \u03b2-amyloid plaques along with tau protein hyperphosphorylation, both major drivers of Alzheimer\u2019s disease (AD). This approach is in line with the demand for certain natural compounds, namely those produced by marine invertebrates that have the potential to be used in the treatment of AD. Current advances in AD treatment are discussed as well as the main factors that potentially affect the puzzling global AD pattern. This study focused on yessotoxins (YTXs), gymnodimine (GYM), spirolides (SPXs), and gambierol, all toxins that have been shown to reduce \u03b2-amyloid plaques and tau hyperphosphorylation, thus preventing the neuronal or synaptic dysfunction that ultimately causes the cell death associated with AD (or other neurodegenerative diseases). Another group of toxins described, okadaic acid (OA) and its derivatives, inhibit protein phosphatase activity, which facilitates the presence of phosphorylated tau proteins. A few studies have used OA to trigger AD in zebrafish, providing an opportunity to test in vivo the effectiveness of new drugs in treating or attenuating AD. Constraints on the production of marine toxins for use in these tests have been considered. Different lines of research are anticipated regarding the action of the two groups of toxins.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/md20040253","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,4,3]],"date-time":"2022-04-03T02:59:52Z","timestamp":1648954792000},"page":"253","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":13,"title":["Alzheimer\u2019s Disease and Toxins Produced by Marine Dinoflagellates: An Issue to Explore"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"20","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9330-9979","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Maria Jo\u00e3o","family":"Botelho","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"IPMA, Portuguese Institute for the Sea and Atmosphere, Av. Alfredo Magalh\u00e3es Ramalho 6, 1495-165 Alg\u00e9s, Portugal"},{"name":"CIIMAR, Interdisciplinary Centre of Marine and Environmental Research, University of Porto, Terminal de Cruzeiros do Porto, Av. General Norton de Matos s\/n, 4450-208 Matosinhos, Portugal"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7092-7851","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jelena","family":"Milinovic","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"CIQ-UP, Chemistry and Biochemistry Department, Faculty of Sciences of University of Porto, Rua do Campo Alegre s\/n, 4169-007 Porto, Portugal"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Narcisa M.","family":"Bandarra","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"IPMA, Portuguese Institute for the Sea and Atmosphere, Av. Alfredo Magalh\u00e3es Ramalho 6, 1495-165 Alg\u00e9s, Portugal"},{"name":"CIIMAR, Interdisciplinary Centre of Marine and Environmental Research, University of Porto, Terminal de Cruzeiros do Porto, Av. General Norton de Matos s\/n, 4450-208 Matosinhos, Portugal"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Carlos","family":"Vale","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"CIIMAR, Interdisciplinary Centre of Marine and Environmental Research, University of Porto, Terminal de Cruzeiros do Porto, Av. General Norton de Matos s\/n, 4450-208 Matosinhos, Portugal"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,4,2]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"Alzheimer\u2019s Association (2021). Alzheimer\u2019s disease facts and figures. Alzheimer\u2019s Dement., 17, 327."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"213","DOI":"10.1177\/0891988710383571","article-title":"Genetics of Alzheimer disease","volume":"23","author":"Bekris","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Geriatr. 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