{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,1]],"date-time":"2026-06-01T13:03:08Z","timestamp":1780318988920,"version":"3.54.1"},"reference-count":44,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"10","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,10,22]],"date-time":"2023-10-22T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1697932800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"National Key R&amp;D Program of China","award":["2018YFD0901106"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2018YFD0901106"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Marine Drugs"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The purpose of the study was to investigate the stability and oral delivery of DHA-encapsulated Pickering emulsions stabilized by soy protein isolate\u2013chitosan (SPI-CS) nanoparticles (SPI-CS Pickering emulsions) under various conditions and in the simulated gastrointestinal (GIT) model. The stability of DHA was characterized by the retention rate under storage, ionic strength, and thermal conditions. The oral delivery efficiency was characterized by the retention and release rate of DHA in the GIT model and cell viability and uptake in the Caco-2 model. The results showed that the content of DHA was above 90% in various conditions. The retention rate of DHA in Pickering emulsions containing various nanoparticle concentrations (1.5 and 3.5%) decreased to 80%, while passing through the mouth to the stomach, and DHA was released 26% in 1.5% Pickering emulsions, which was faster than that of 3.5% in the small intestine. After digestion, DHA Pickering emulsions proved to be nontoxic and effectively absorbed by cells. These findings helped to develop a novel delivery system for DHA.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/md21100546","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,10,22]],"date-time":"2023-10-22T07:02:53Z","timestamp":1697958173000},"page":"546","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":13,"title":["Soy Protein Isolate\u2013Chitosan Nanoparticle-Stabilized Pickering Emulsions: Stability and In Vitro Digestion for DHA"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"21","author":[{"given":"Pengcheng","family":"Zhao","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Marine Food Processing & Safety Control, College of Food Science and Engineering, Ocean University of China, Qingdao 266404, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yuan","family":"Ji","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Marine Food Processing & Safety Control, College of Food Science and Engineering, Ocean University of China, Qingdao 266404, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Han","family":"Yang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Marine Food Processing & Safety Control, College of Food Science and Engineering, Ocean University of China, Qingdao 266404, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Xianghong","family":"Meng","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Marine Food Processing & Safety Control, College of Food Science and Engineering, Ocean University of China, Qingdao 266404, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7115-8695","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Bingjie","family":"Liu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Marine Food Processing & Safety Control, College of Food Science and Engineering, Ocean University of China, Qingdao 266404, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,10,22]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"291","DOI":"10.1080\/87559120600694622","article-title":"Physiological effects of eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA)\u2014A review","volume":"22","author":"Narayan","year":"2006","journal-title":"Food Rev. Int."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"92","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodhyd.2016.04.047","article-title":"Influence of emulsifier type on the in vitro digestion of fish oil-in-water emulsions in the presence of an anionic marine polysaccharide (fucoidan): Caseinate, whey protein, lecithin, or Tween 80","volume":"61","author":"Chang","year":"2016","journal-title":"Food Hydrocoll."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"213","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodchem.2018.10.112","article-title":"Combination of internal structuring and external coating in an oleogel-based delivery system for fish oil stabilization","volume":"277","author":"Lee","year":"2019","journal-title":"Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"216","DOI":"10.1007\/s11483-019-09612-z","article-title":"Preparation of Pickering flaxseed oil-in-water emulsion stabilized by chitosan-myristic acid nanogels and investigation of its oxidative stability in presence of clove essential oil as antioxidant","volume":"15","author":"Hosseini","year":"2020","journal-title":"Food Biophys."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1106","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodchem.2012.03.027","article-title":"Encapsulation of functional lipophilic components in surfactant-based colloidal delivery systems: Vitamin E, vitamin D, and lemon oil","volume":"134","author":"Ziani","year":"2012","journal-title":"Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cofs.2014.12.008","article-title":"Enhancing nutraceutical bioavailability through food matrix design","volume":"4","author":"Mcclements","year":"2015","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Food Sci."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"153","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodhyd.2018.04.047","article-title":"Encapsulation of vitamin D3 in Pickering emulsions stabilized by nanofibrillated mangosteen cellulose: Impact on in vitro digestion and bioaccessibility","volume":"83","author":"Winuprasith","year":"2018","journal-title":"Food Hydrocoll."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1202","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jbiomech.2006.06.006","article-title":"A stomach road or \u201cmagenstrasse\u201d for gastric emptying","volume":"40","author":"Pal","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Biomech."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"399","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodres.2016.08.022","article-title":"Bioaccessibility and antioxidant activity of curcumin after encapsulated by nano and Pickering emulsion based on chitosan-tripolyphosphate nanoparticles","volume":"89","author":"Shah","year":"2016","journal-title":"Food Res. Int."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"770","DOI":"10.1080\/10408398.2016.1223599","article-title":"Emulsion design for the delivery of beta-carotene in complex food systems","volume":"58","author":"Mao","year":"2018","journal-title":"Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"92","DOI":"10.1038\/nature14232","article-title":"Dietary emulsifiers impact the mouse gut microbiota promoting colitis and metabolic syndrome","volume":"519","author":"Chassaing","year":"2015","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"348","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcis.2010.08.019","article-title":"Effects of solid particle content on properties of o\/w Pickering emulsions","volume":"351","author":"Frelichowska","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Colloid Interface Sci."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"584","DOI":"10.1039\/C6FO01027J","article-title":"High internal phase emulsions stabilized solely by whey protein isolate-low methoxyl pectin complexes: Effect of ph and polymer concentration","volume":"8","author":"Wijaya","year":"2017","journal-title":"Food Funct."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"210","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodhyd.2018.10.012","article-title":"Stability, rheology, and \u03b2-carotene bioaccessibility of high internal phase emulsion gels","volume":"88","author":"Liu","year":"2019","journal-title":"Food Hydrocoll."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"126118","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodchem.2019.126118","article-title":"Fabrication of curcumin-loaded pea protein-pectin ternary complex for the stabilization and delivery of beta-carotene emulsions","volume":"313","author":"Yi","year":"2020","journal-title":"Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105992","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodhyd.2020.105992","article-title":"Pickering emulsion gels stabilized by novel complex particles of high-pressure-induced wpi gel and chitosan: Fabrication, characterization and encapsulation","volume":"108","author":"Lv","year":"2020","journal-title":"Food Hydrocoll."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1280","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijbiomac.2019.10.103","article-title":"Cinnamon essential oil Pickering emulsion stabilized by zein-pectin composite nanoparticles: Characterization, antimicrobial effect and advantages in storage application","volume":"148","author":"Jiang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Biol. Macromol."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105715","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodhyd.2020.105715","article-title":"Zein\/soluble soybean polysaccharide composite nanoparticles for encapsulation and oral delivery of lutein","volume":"103","author":"Li","year":"2020","journal-title":"Food Hydrocoll."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"116712","DOI":"10.1016\/j.carbpol.2020.116712","article-title":"Fabrication and characterization of Pickering emulsion stabilized by soy protein isolate-chitosan nanoparticles","volume":"247","author":"Yang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Carbohydr. Polym."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2251","DOI":"10.1002\/jsfa.9420","article-title":"DHA rich algae oil delivered by O\/W or gelled emulsions: Strategies to increase its bioaccessibility","volume":"99","author":"Gayoso","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Sci. Food Agric."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"182","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcis.2015.03.004","article-title":"Barrier properties of heat treated starch Pickering emulsions","volume":"450","author":"Sjoo","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Colloid Interface Sci."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"999","DOI":"10.1016\/j.lwt.2014.10.066","article-title":"Optimization of formulation and influence of environmental stresses on stability of lycopene-microemulsion","volume":"60","author":"Shi","year":"2015","journal-title":"LWT-Food Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"116340","DOI":"10.1016\/j.carbpol.2020.116340","article-title":"Potential Pickering emulsion stabilized with chitosan-stearic acid nanogels incorporating clove essential oil to produce fish-oil-enriched mayonnaise","volume":"241","author":"Hosseini","year":"2020","journal-title":"Carbohydr. Polym."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1563","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodhyd.2008.10.014","article-title":"Behavior of an oil-in-water emulsion stabilized by \u03b2-lactoglobulin in an in vitro gastric model","volume":"23","author":"Sarkar","year":"2009","journal-title":"Food Hydrocoll."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"915","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodhyd.2004.12.005","article-title":"Emulsion flocculation induced by saliva and mucin","volume":"19","author":"Vingerhoeds","year":"2005","journal-title":"Food Hydrocoll."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"240","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tifs.2007.01.004","article-title":"Recent advances in microencapsulation of probiotics for industrial applications and targeted delivery","volume":"18","author":"Anal","year":"2007","journal-title":"Trends Food Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115190","DOI":"10.1016\/j.carbpol.2019.115190","article-title":"Preparation of chitosan\/gum arabic nanoparticles and their use as novel stabilizers in oil\/water Pickering emulsions","volume":"224","author":"Sharkawy","year":"2019","journal-title":"Carbohydr. Polym."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"64","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodres.2015.11.025","article-title":"Gel-like pea protein Pickering emulsions at ph3.0 as a potential intestine-targeted and sustained-release delivery system for \u03b2-carotene","volume":"79","author":"Shao","year":"2016","journal-title":"Food Res. Int."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10213","DOI":"10.1039\/c2sm26215k","article-title":"The design of emulsions and their fate in the body following enteral and parenteral routes","volume":"8","author":"Cansell","year":"2012","journal-title":"Soft Matter"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"131","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodres.2015.04.022","article-title":"Influence of anionic dietary fibers (xanthan gum and pectin) on oxidative stability and lipid digestibility of wheat protein-stabilized fish oil-in-water emulsion","volume":"74","author":"Qiu","year":"2015","journal-title":"Food Res. Int."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"653","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodchem.2017.02.146","article-title":"Lipid digestion, micelle formation and carotenoid bioaccessibility kinetics: Influence of emulsion droplet size","volume":"229","author":"Verkempinck","year":"2017","journal-title":"Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"112112","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodres.2022.112112","article-title":"Encapsulation of dha oil with heat-denatured whey protein in Pickering emulsion improves its bioaccessibility","volume":"162","author":"Wang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Food Res. Int."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1619","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.jafc.0c06409","article-title":"Stability, interfacial structure, and gastrointestinal digestion of beta-carotene-loaded Pickering emulsions co-stabilized by particles, a biopolymer, and a surfactant","volume":"69","author":"Wei","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Agric. Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"126288","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodchem.2020.126288","article-title":"Chitosan hydrochloride\/carboxymethyl starch complex nanogels stabilized Pickering emulsions for oral delivery of beta-carotene: Protection effect and in vitro digestion study","volume":"315","author":"Li","year":"2020","journal-title":"Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"577","DOI":"10.1080\/10408390902841529","article-title":"Structural design principles for delivery of bioactive components in nutraceuticals and functional foods","volume":"49","author":"Mcclements","year":"2009","journal-title":"Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2583","DOI":"10.1039\/C8FO02495B","article-title":"Assessment of dynamic bioaccessibility of curcumin encapsulated in milled starch particle stabilized Pickering emulsions using TNO\u2019s gastrointestinal model","volume":"10","author":"Lu","year":"2019","journal-title":"Food Funct."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tang, Q., Xie, X., Li, C., Zhen, B., Cai, X., Zhang, G., Zhou, C., and Wang, L. (2019). Medium-chain triglyceride\/water Pickering emulsion stabilized by phosphatidylcholine-kaolinite for encapsulation and controlled release of curcumin. Colloid Surf. B-Biointerfaces, 183.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.colsurfb.2019.110414"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"99","DOI":"10.1016\/j.plefa.2009.05.011","article-title":"Dietary reference intakes for dha and epa","volume":"81","author":"Grieger","year":"2009","journal-title":"Prostaglandins Leukot. Essent. Fatty Acids"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4330","DOI":"10.1021\/jf040028k","article-title":"Assessment of carotenoid bioavailability of whole foods using a caco-2 cell culture model coupled with an in vitro digestion","volume":"52","author":"Liu","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Agric. Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"149","DOI":"10.1016\/0005-2736(95)00041-Z","article-title":"Uptake and passage of beta-lactoglobulin, palmitic acid and retinol across the caco-2 monolayer","volume":"1236","author":"Puyol","year":"1995","journal-title":"Biochim. Biophys. Acta"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"76","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijbiomac.2019.01.037","article-title":"Magnetic cellulose nanocrystal stabilized Pickering emulsions for enhanced bioactive release and human colon cancer therapy","volume":"127","author":"Low","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int. J. Biol. Macromol."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"917","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijbiomac.2019.08.078","article-title":"Combining in vitro digestion model with cell culture model: Assessment of encapsulation and delivery of curcumin in milled starch particle stabilized Pickering emulsions","volume":"139","author":"Lu","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int. J. Biol. Macromol."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"382","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodhyd.2017.03.004","article-title":"Influence of dietary fibers on lipid digestion: Comparison of single-stage and multiple-stage gastrointestinal models","volume":"69","author":"Qin","year":"2017","journal-title":"Food Hydrocoll."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1113","DOI":"10.1039\/C3FO60702J","article-title":"A standardized static in vitro digestion method suitable for food\u2014An international consensus","volume":"5","author":"Minekus","year":"2014","journal-title":"Food Funct."}],"container-title":["Marine Drugs"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1660-3397\/21\/10\/546\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T21:09:49Z","timestamp":1760130589000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1660-3397\/21\/10\/546"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,10,22]]},"references-count":44,"journal-issue":{"issue":"10","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,10]]}},"alternative-id":["md21100546"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/md21100546","relation":{},"ISSN":["1660-3397"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1660-3397","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,10,22]]}}}