{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,30]],"date-time":"2026-09-30T12:35:13Z","timestamp":1790771713551,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":291,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,29]],"date-time":"2025-01-29T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1738108800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"National Defense Science and Engineering Graduate (NDSEG) Fellowship Program","award":["FA9550-21-F-0003"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["FA9550-21-F-0003"]}]},{"name":"Air Force Research Laboratory (AFRL)","award":["FA9550-21-F-0003"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["FA9550-21-F-0003"]}]},{"name":"Office of Naval Research (ONR)","award":["FA9550-21-F-0003"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["FA9550-21-F-0003"]}]},{"name":"Army Research Office (ARO)","award":["FA9550-21-F-0003"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["FA9550-21-F-0003"]}]},{"name":"NOAA John H. Prescott Marine Mammal Rescue Assistance Grant Program","award":["FA9550-21-F-0003"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["FA9550-21-F-0003"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Marine Drugs"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Biotoxins produced by harmful algal blooms (HABs) are a substantial global threat to ocean and human health. Domoic acid (DA) is one such biotoxin whose negative impacts are forecasted to increase with climate change and coastal development. This manuscript serves as a review of DA toxicosis after environmental exposure in humans and wildlife, including an introduction to HAB toxins, the history of DA toxicosis, DA production, toxicokinetic properties of DA, susceptibility, clinical signs, DA detection methods and other diagnostic tests, time course of toxicosis, treatment, prognostics, and recommendations for future research. Additionally, we highlight the utility of California sea lions (CSLs; Zalophus californianus) as a model and sentinel of environmental DA exposure.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/md23020061","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,29]],"date-time":"2025-01-29T04:36:18Z","timestamp":1738125378000},"page":"61","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":21,"title":["The Toxic Effects of Environmental Domoic Acid Exposure on Humans and Marine Wildlife"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"23","author":[{"given":"Ami E.","family":"Krasner","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Florida Institute of Technology, Department of Ocean Engineering and Marine Sciences, Melbourne, FL 32901, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Margaret E.","family":"Martinez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"The Marine Mammal Center, Sausalito, CA 94965, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Cara L.","family":"Field","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"The Marine Mammal Center, Sausalito, CA 94965, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1657-790X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Spencer E.","family":"Fire","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Florida Institute of Technology, Department of Ocean Engineering and Marine Sciences, Melbourne, FL 32901, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,29]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1016\/j.hal.2018.06.001","article-title":"Pseudo-Nitzschia, Nitzschia, and Domoic Acid: New Research since 2011","volume":"79","author":"Bates","year":"2018","journal-title":"Harmful Algae"},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"Fire, S.E., and Van Dolah, F.M. 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