{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,30]],"date-time":"2026-09-30T12:35:44Z","timestamp":1790771744507,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":200,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"7","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,2]],"date-time":"2025-07-02T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1751414400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China (NSFC)","award":["82173732"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["82173732"]}]},{"name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China (NSFC)","award":["2019YFC0312603"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2019YFC0312603"]}]},{"name":"National Key Research and Development Program of China","award":["82173732"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["82173732"]}]},{"name":"National Key Research and Development Program of China","award":["2019YFC0312603"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2019YFC0312603"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Marine Drugs"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Saxitoxin (STX) is a potent toxin produced by marine dinoflagellates and freshwater or brackish water cyanobacteria, and is a member of the paralytic shellfish toxins (PSTs). As a highly specific blocker of voltage-gated sodium channels (NaVs), STX blocks sodium ion influx, thereby inhibiting nerve impulse transmission and leading to systemic physiological dysfunctions in the nervous, respiratory, cardiovascular, and digestive systems. Severe exposure can lead to paralysis, respiratory failure, and mortality. STX primarily enters the human body through the consumption of contaminated shellfish, posing a significant public health risk as the causative agent of paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP). Beyond its acute toxicity, STX exerts cascading impacts on food safety, marine ecosystem integrity, and economic stability, particularly in regions affected by harmful algal blooms (HABs). Moreover, the complex molecular structure of STX\u2014tricyclic skeleton and biguanide group\u2014and its diverse analogs (more than 50 derivatives) have made it the focus of research on natural toxins. In this review, we traced the discovery history, chemical structure, molecular biosynthesis, biological enrichment mechanisms, and toxicological actions of STX. Moreover, we highlighted recent advancements in the potential for detection and treatment strategies of STX. By integrating multidisciplinary insights, this review aims to provide a holistic understanding of STX and to guide future research directions for its prevention, management, and potential applications.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/md23070277","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,2]],"date-time":"2025-07-02T06:10:26Z","timestamp":1751436626000},"page":"277","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":40,"title":["Saxitoxin: A Comprehensive Review of Its History, Structure, Toxicology, Biosynthesis, Detection, and Preventive Implications"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"23","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0000-0767-1876","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Huiyun","family":"Deng","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Student team, College of Basic Medical Sciences, Naval Medical University, Shanghai 200433, China"},{"name":"Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, College of Basic Medical Sciences, Naval Medical University, Shanghai 200433, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Xinrui","family":"Shang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Student team, College of Basic Medical Sciences, Naval Medical University, Shanghai 200433, China"},{"name":"Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, College of Basic Medical Sciences, Naval Medical University, Shanghai 200433, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8359-3758","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Hu","family":"Zhu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Chemistry and Materials Science, Fujian Normal University, Fuzhou 350007, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ning","family":"Huang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, College of Basic Medical Sciences, Naval Medical University, Shanghai 200433, China"},{"name":"Key Laboratory of Biosafety Defense (Naval Medical University), Ministry of Education, Shanghai 200433, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8354-5895","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Lianghua","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, College of Basic Medical Sciences, Naval Medical University, Shanghai 200433, China"},{"name":"Key Laboratory of Biosafety Defense (Naval Medical University), Ministry of Education, Shanghai 200433, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0004-9185-4024","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mingjuan","family":"Sun","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, College of Basic Medical Sciences, Naval Medical University, Shanghai 200433, China"},{"name":"Key Laboratory of Biosafety Defense (Naval Medical University), Ministry of Education, Shanghai 200433, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,2]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4044","DOI":"10.1128\/AEM.00353-08","article-title":"Biosynthetic Intermediate Analysis and Functional Homology Reveal a Saxitoxin Gene Cluster in Cyanobacteria","volume":"74","author":"Kellmann","year":"2008","journal-title":"Appl. Environ. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Akbar, M.A., Mohd, Y.N., Tahir, N.I., Ahmad, A., Usup, G., Sahrani, F.K., and Bunawan, H. (2020). Biosynthesis of Saxitoxin in Marine Dinoflagellates: An Omics Perspective. Mar. Drugs, 18.","DOI":"10.3390\/md18020103"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1105","DOI":"10.1016\/0041-0101(87)90267-4","article-title":"Dinoflagellate Gymnodinium catenatum as the Source of Paralytic Shellfish Toxins in Tasmanian Shellfish","volume":"25","author":"Oshima","year":"1987","journal-title":"Toxicon"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10","DOI":"10.1016\/j.hal.2011.10.012","article-title":"The Globally Distributed Genus Alexandrium: Multifaceted Roles in Marine Ecosystems and Impacts on Human Health","volume":"14","author":"Anderson","year":"2012","journal-title":"Harmful Algae"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"595","DOI":"10.1016\/0041-0101(78)90187-3","article-title":"The Occurrence of Saxitoxin and Other Toxins in Various Dinoflagellates","volume":"16","author":"Bates","year":"1978","journal-title":"Toxicon"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1871","DOI":"10.1016\/S0041-0101(00)00099-4","article-title":"Saxitoxin and Neosaxitoxin as Toxic Principles of Alexandrium andersoni (Dinophyceae) from the Gulf of Naples, Italy","volume":"38","author":"Ciminiello","year":"2000","journal-title":"Toxicon"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1502","DOI":"10.1289\/ehp.8998","article-title":"Saxitoxin Puffer Fish Poisoning in the United States, with the First Report of Pyrodinium bahamense as the Putative Toxin Source","volume":"114","author":"Landsberg","year":"2006","journal-title":"Environ. Health Perspect."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101923","DOI":"10.1016\/j.hal.2020.101923","article-title":"Centrodinium punctatum (Dinophyceae) Produces Significant Levels of Saxitoxin and Related Analogs","volume":"100","author":"Shin","year":"2020","journal-title":"Harmful Algae"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1445","DOI":"10.1021\/es001575z","article-title":"Radioreceptor Assays for Sensitive Detection and Quantitation of Saxitoxin and Its Analogues from Strains of the Freshwater Cyanobacterium, Anabaena circinalis","volume":"35","author":"Llewellyn","year":"2001","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102004","DOI":"10.1016\/j.hal.2021.102004","article-title":"Saxitoxins from the Freshwater Cyanobacterium Raphidiopsis raciborskii Can Contaminate Marine Mussels","volume":"103","author":"Ramos","year":"2021","journal-title":"Harmful Algae"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1173","DOI":"10.1128\/AEM.02285-09","article-title":"Paralytic Shellfish Poisoning Toxin-Producing Cyanobacterium Aphanizomenon gracile in Northeast Germany","volume":"76","author":"Ballot","year":"2010","journal-title":"Appl. Environ. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3104","DOI":"10.1128\/aem.63.8.3104-3110.1997","article-title":"Evidence for Paralytic Shellfish Poisons in the Freshwater Cyanobacterium Lyngbya wollei (Farlow Ex Gomont) Comb","volume":"63","author":"Carmichael","year":"1997","journal-title":"Nov. Appl. Environ. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"139515","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2020.139515","article-title":"Freshwater Neurotoxins and Concerns for Human, Animal, and Ecosystem Health: A Review of Anatoxin-a and Saxitoxin","volume":"736","author":"Christensen","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pedrosa, C., Souza, L., Gomes, T.A., de Lima, C., Ledur, P.F., Karmirian, K., Barbeito-Andres, J., Costa, M., Higa, L.M., and Rossi, A.D. (2020). The Cyanobacterial Saxitoxin Exacerbates Neural Cell Death and Brain Malformations Induced by Zika Virus. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis., 14.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0008060"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Farabegoli, F., Blanco, L., Rodriguez, L.P., Vieites, J.M., and Cabado, A.G. (2018). Phycotoxins in Marine Shellfish: Origin, Occurrence and Effects on Humans. Mar. Drugs, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/md16060188"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Guillotin, S., and Delcourt, N. (2021). Marine Neurotoxins\u2019 Effects on Environmental and Human Health: An OMICS Overview. Mar. Drugs, 20.","DOI":"10.3390\/md20010018"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11144","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.analchem.2c00836","article-title":"Nontoxic Enantiomeric Reference Materials for Saxitoxins","volume":"94","author":"Watanabe","year":"2022","journal-title":"Anal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Morris, Z.J., Stommel, E.W., and Metcalf, J.S. (2025). Airborne Cyanobacterial Toxins and Their Links to Neurodegenerative Diseases. Molecules, 30.","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules30112320"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Stern, D.B., Raborn, R.T., Lovett, S.P., Boise, N.R., Carrasquilla, L., Enke, S., Radune, D., Woodruff, D.L., Wahl, K.L., and Rosovitz, M.J. (2025). Novel Toxin Biosynthetic Gene Cluster in Harmful Algal Bloom-Causing Heteroscytonema crispum: Insights into the Origins of Paralytic Shellfish Toxins. Genome Biol. Evol., 17.","DOI":"10.1093\/gbe\/evae248"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102870","DOI":"10.1016\/j.hal.2025.102870","article-title":"A Decade-Long Study on Harmful Dinoflagellate Blooms and Biotoxin Contamination in Mussels from the North-Western Adriatic Sea (Mediterranean Sea)","volume":"146","author":"Zoffoli","year":"2025","journal-title":"Harmful Algae"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"62","DOI":"10.1002\/lol2.10421","article-title":"Tracking a Large-Scale and Highly Toxic Arctic Algal Bloom: Rapid Detection and Risk Communication","volume":"10","author":"Fachon","year":"2025","journal-title":"Limnol. Oceanogr. Lett."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"120953","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envres.2025.120953","article-title":"Unexpected Cyanobacterial Communities in Highly Heterogeneous Toxic Blooms from a Mediterranean Protected Area","volume":"270","author":"Justel","year":"2025","journal-title":"Environ. Res."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.1085\/jgp.59.1.33","article-title":"Ionic Channels and Nerve Membrane Constituents. Tetrodotoxin-like Interaction of Saxitoxin with Cholesterol Monolayers","volume":"59","author":"Villegas","year":"1972","journal-title":"J. Gen. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"383","DOI":"10.1113\/jphysiol.1979.sp012975","article-title":"Characteristics of Saxitoxin Binding to the Sodium Channel of Sarcolemma Isolated from Rat Skeletal Muscle","volume":"295","author":"Barchi","year":"1979","journal-title":"J. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Duran-Riveroll, L.M., and Cembella, A.D. (2017). Guanidinium Toxins and Their Interactions with Voltage-Gated Sodium Ion Channels. Mar. Drugs, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/md15100303"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"43","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuropharm.2017.09.018","article-title":"Voltage-Gated Sodium Channel Beta Subunits: The Power Outside the Pore in Brain Development and Disease","volume":"132","author":"Hull","year":"2018","journal-title":"Neuropharmacology"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"470","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2017.06.039","article-title":"Structure of the Na(v)1.4-Beta1 Complex from Electric Eel","volume":"170","author":"Yan","year":"2017","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"318","DOI":"10.1177\/10738584211017009","article-title":"Cannabidiol and Sodium Channel Pharmacology: General Overview, Mechanism, and Clinical Implications","volume":"28","author":"Ghovanloo","year":"2022","journal-title":"Neuroscientist"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"124","DOI":"10.1016\/j.toxicon.2006.09.022","article-title":"Voltage-Gated Ion Channels and Gating Modifier Toxins","volume":"49","author":"Catterall","year":"2007","journal-title":"Toxicon"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"324","DOI":"10.1124\/jpet.103.056564","article-title":"Saxitoxin Blocks L-Type ICa","volume":"308","author":"Su","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"583","DOI":"10.1085\/jgp.200308812","article-title":"Saxitoxin Is a Gating Modifier of HERG K+ Channels","volume":"121","author":"Wang","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Gen. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e27874","DOI":"10.1016\/j.heliyon.2024.e27874","article-title":"Sublethal Neurotoxicity of Saxitoxin in Early Zebrafish Development: Impact on Sensorimotor Function and Neurotransmission Systems","volume":"10","author":"Carnicero","year":"2024","journal-title":"Heliyon"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17211","DOI":"10.18632\/aging.203199","article-title":"Effects of Long-Term Low Dose Saxitoxin Exposure on Nerve Damage in Mice","volume":"13","author":"Sun","year":"2021","journal-title":"Aging"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5230","DOI":"10.1021\/ja01576a044","article-title":"Paralytic Shellfish Poison. VI. A Procedure for the Isolation and Purification of the Poison from Toxic Clam and Mussel Tissues","volume":"79","author":"Schantz","year":"1957","journal-title":"J. Am. Chem. Soc."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1238","DOI":"10.1021\/ja00838a045","article-title":"Letter: The Structure of Saxitoxin","volume":"97","author":"Schantz","year":"1975","journal-title":"J. Am. Chem. Soc."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6008","DOI":"10.1021\/ja00854a009","article-title":"The Structure of a Crystalline Derivative of Saxitoxin","volume":"97","author":"Bordner","year":"1975","journal-title":"Struct. Saxitoxin. J. Am. Chem. Soc."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"346","DOI":"10.1016\/0041-0101(85)90159-X","article-title":"Distribution of Paralytic Toxins in California Shellfish","volume":"23","author":"Divan","year":"1985","journal-title":"Toxicon"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2818","DOI":"10.1021\/ja00450a079","article-title":"A Stereospecific Total Synthesis of d,l-Saxitoxin","volume":"99","author":"Tanino","year":"1977","journal-title":"J. Am. Chem. Soc."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9964","DOI":"10.1021\/ja071501o","article-title":"(+)-Saxitoxin: A First and Second Generation Stereoselective Synthesis","volume":"129","author":"Fleming","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Am. Chem. Soc."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3926","DOI":"10.1021\/ja0608545","article-title":"A Synthesis of (+)-Saxitoxin","volume":"128","author":"Fleming","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Am. Chem. Soc."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"277","DOI":"10.1002\/asia.200800382","article-title":"Total Synthesis of (-)- and (+)-Decarbamoyloxysaxitoxin and (+)-Saxitoxin","volume":"4","author":"Iwamoto","year":"2009","journal-title":"Chem. Asian J."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2150","DOI":"10.1021\/ol1006696","article-title":"Total Synthesis of (+)-Decarbamoylsaxitoxin and (+)-Gonyautoxin 3","volume":"12","author":"Iwamoto","year":"2010","journal-title":"Org. Lett."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"619","DOI":"10.1113\/jphysiol.1982.sp014095","article-title":"Active Groups of Saxitoxin and Tetrodotoxin as Deduced from Actions of Saxitoxin Analogues on Frog Muscle and Squid Axon","volume":"323","author":"Kao","year":"1982","journal-title":"J. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"609","DOI":"10.1085\/jgp.100.4.609","article-title":"Actions of Chiriquitoxin on Frog Skeletal Muscle Fibers and Implications for the Tetrodotoxin\/Saxitoxin Receptor","volume":"100","author":"Yang","year":"1992","journal-title":"J. Gen. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"645","DOI":"10.1016\/0041-0101(92)90858-3","article-title":"Actions of Decarbamoyloxysaxitoxin and Decarbamoylneosaxitoxin on the Frog Skeletal Muscle Fiber","volume":"30","author":"Yang","year":"1992","journal-title":"Toxicon"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"605","DOI":"10.1021\/ja00393a017","article-title":"Structure of Saxitoxin in Solutions and Stereochemistry of Dihydrosaxitoxins","volume":"103","author":"Shimizu","year":"1981","journal-title":"J. Am. Chem. Soc."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, W., Paladugu, S.R., Liles, J.P., Karthikeyan, M., Chase, K., Raghuraman, S., Sigman, M.S., and Looper, R.E. (2025). Macrocycles of Saxitoxin: Insights into the Structure of Zetekitoxin AB. Chembiochem Eur. J. Chem. Biol., 26.","DOI":"10.1002\/cbic.202500170"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"124166","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envpol.2024.124166","article-title":"Temperature Rise and Its Influence on the Toxic Effects Caused by Cyanotoxins in a Neotropical Catfish","volume":"353","author":"Vicentini","year":"2024","journal-title":"Environ. Pollut."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Leal, J.F., and Cristiano, M. (2022). Revisiting the HPLC-FLD Method to Quantify Paralytic Shellfish Toxins: C3,4 Quantification and the First Steps towards Validation. Toxins, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/toxins14030179"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7335","DOI":"10.1021\/ja00544a030","article-title":"The pKa\u2019s of Saxitoxin","volume":"102","author":"Rogers","year":"1980","journal-title":"J. Am. Chem. Soc."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1341","DOI":"10.1080\/09593330309385678","article-title":"Chlorination for Degrading Saxitoxins (Paralytic Shellfish Poisons) in Water","volume":"24","author":"Nicholson","year":"2003","journal-title":"Environ. Technol."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bowers, E.K., Stimmelmayr, R., Hendrix, A., and Lefebvre, K.A. (2022). Stability of Saxitoxin in 50% Methanol Fecal Extracts and Raw Feces from Bowhead Whales (Balaena mysticetus). Mar. Drugs, 20.","DOI":"10.3390\/md20090547"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"143053","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chemosphere.2024.143053","article-title":"First Record of Paralytic Shellfish Toxins in Marine Pufferfish from the Spanish Mediterranean Coast Using Cell-Based Assay, Automated Patch Clamp and HPLC-FLD","volume":"364","author":"Alkassar","year":"2024","journal-title":"Chemosphere"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2185","DOI":"10.3390\/md8072185","article-title":"Neurotoxic Alkaloids: Saxitoxin and Its Analogs","volume":"8","author":"Wiese","year":"2010","journal-title":"Mar. Drugs"},{"key":"ref_55","first-page":"281","article-title":"Structural Determinants of the Affinity of Saxitoxin for Neuronal Sodium Channels","volume":"84","author":"Strichartz","year":"1984","journal-title":"Electrophysiol. Stud. Frog Peripher. Nerve. J. Gen. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Viallon, J., Chinain, M., and Darius, H.T. (2020). Revisiting the Neuroblastoma Cell-Based Assay (CBA-N2a) for the Improved Detection of Marine Toxins Active on Voltage Gated Sodium Channels (VGSCs). Toxins, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/toxins12050281"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"634","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1444-2906.2002.00471.x","article-title":"Purification and Characterization of Sulfotransferase Specific to O-22 of 11-Hydroxy Saxitoxin from the Toxic Dinoflagellate Gymnodinium catenatum (Dinophyceae)","volume":"68","author":"Yoshida","year":"2002","journal-title":"Fish. Sci."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2345","DOI":"10.1128\/AEM.67.5.2345-2353.2001","article-title":"Biotransformations of Paralytic Shellfish Toxins by Bacteria Isolated from Bivalve Molluscs","volume":"67","author":"Smith","year":"2001","journal-title":"Appl. Environ. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mihali, T.K., Kellmann, R., and Neilan, B.A. (2009). Characterisation of the Paralytic Shellfish Toxin Biosynthesis Gene Clusters in Anabaena circinalis AWQC131C and Aphanizomenon Sp. NH-5. BMC Biochem., 10.","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-2091-10-8"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Geffroy, S., Lechat, M.M., Le Gac, M., Rovillon, G.A., Marie, D., Bigeard, E., Malo, F., Amzil, Z., Guillou, L., and Caruana, A. (2021). From the sxtA4 Gene to Saxitoxin Production: What Controls the Variability Among Alexandrium minutum and Alexandrium pacificum Strains?. Front. Microbiol., 12.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2021.613199"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"70","DOI":"10.1093\/molbev\/mss142","article-title":"Evolution of Saxitoxin Synthesis in Cyanobacteria and Dinoflagellates","volume":"30","author":"Hackett","year":"2013","journal-title":"Mol. Biol. Evol."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1173","DOI":"10.1093\/molbev\/msq295","article-title":"Extraordinary Conservation, Gene Loss, and Positive Selection in the Evolution of an Ancient Neurotoxin","volume":"28","author":"Murray","year":"2011","journal-title":"Mol. Biol. Evol."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106824","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ympev.2020.106824","article-title":"Biogeography of the Cyanobacterium Raphidiopsis (Cylindrospermopsis) raciborskii: Integrating Genomics, Phylogenetic and Toxicity Data","volume":"148","author":"Vico","year":"2020","journal-title":"Mol. Phylogenet. Evol."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ballot, A., Cerasino, L., Hostyeva, V., and Cires, S. (2016). Variability in the Sxt Gene Clusters of PSP Toxin Producing Aphanizomenon gracile Strains from Norway, Spain, Germany and North America. PLoS ONE, 11.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0167552"},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"116048","DOI":"10.1016\/j.marpolbul.2024.116048","article-title":"Quantification of Alexandrium catenella (Group I) Using sxtA4-Based Digital PCR for Screening of Paralytic Shellfish Toxins in Jinhae-Masan Bay, Korea","volume":"200","author":"Hyung","year":"2024","journal-title":"Mar. Pollut. Bull."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102603","DOI":"10.1016\/j.hal.2024.102603","article-title":"Development of Saxitoxin Biosynthesis Gene sxtB-Targeted qPCR Assay for the Quantification of Toxic Dinoflagellates Alexandrium catenella (Group I) and A. pacificum (Group IV) Occurring in the Korean Coast","volume":"134","author":"Kim","year":"2024","journal-title":"Harmful Algae"},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102872","DOI":"10.1016\/j.hal.2025.102872","article-title":"Transcriptomic Comparison Unveils Saxitoxin Biosynthesis Genes in the Marine Dinoflagellate Gymnodinium catenatum","volume":"147","author":"Muhammad","year":"2025","journal-title":"Harmful Algae"},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bui, Q., Kim, H., Park, H., and Ki, J.S. (2021). Salinity Affects Saxitoxins (STXs) Toxicity in the Dinoflagellate Alexandrium pacificum, with Low Transcription of SXT-Biosynthesis Genes sxtA4 and sxtG. Toxins, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/toxins13100733"},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cires, S., Delgado, A., Gonzalez-Pleiter, M., and Quesada, A. (2017). Temperature Influences the Production and Transport of Saxitoxin and the Expression of Sxt Genes in the Cyanobacterium Aphanizomenon gracile. Toxins, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/toxins9100322"},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"116464","DOI":"10.1016\/j.marpolbul.2024.116464","article-title":"Effects of Temperature and Nutrients on Growth and Toxicity of Alexandrium affine from Southeastern Gulf of California","volume":"203","year":"2024","journal-title":"Mar. Pollut. Bull."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"149801","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2021.149801","article-title":"Temperature Influences the Content and Biosynthesis Gene Expression of Saxitoxins (STXs) in the Toxigenic Dinoflagellate Alexandrium pacificum","volume":"802","author":"Wang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"137","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1444-2906.2007.01503.x","article-title":"Effects of Irradiance of Various Wavelengths from Light-Emitting Diodes on the Growth of the Harmful Dinoflagellate Heterocapsa circularisquama and the Diatom Skeletonema costatum","volume":"74","author":"Oh","year":"2008","journal-title":"Fish. Sci."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"291","DOI":"10.3354\/meps055291","article-title":"Influence of Irradiance and Spectral Quality on the Carbon Metabolism of Phytoplankton I. Photosynthesis, Chemical Composition and Growth","volume":"55","author":"Rivkin","year":"1989","journal-title":"Mar. Ecol. Prog."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mesquita, M., Lurling, M., Dorr, F., Pinto, E., and Marinho, M.M. (2019). Combined Effect of Light and Temperature on the Production of Saxitoxins in Cylindrospermopsis raciborskii Strains. Toxins, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/toxins11010038"},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kim, H., Park, H., Wang, H., Yoo, H.Y., Park, J., and Ki, J.S. (2021). Low Temperature and Cold Stress Significantly Increase Saxitoxins (STXs) and Expression of STX Biosynthesis Genes sxtA4 and sxtG in the Dinoflagellate Alexandrium catenella. Mar. Drugs, 19.","DOI":"10.3390\/md19060291"},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"135","DOI":"10.1016\/j.hal.2015.11.010","article-title":"The Competitive Dynamics of Toxic Alexandrium fundyense and Non-Toxic Alexandrium tamarense: The Role of Temperature","volume":"53","author":"Bresnan","year":"2016","journal-title":"Harmful Algae"},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"203","DOI":"10.1007\/s10811-009-9443-8","article-title":"Growth and Toxin Production of Tropical Alexandrium minutum Halim (Dinophyceae) under Various Nitrogen to Phosphorus Ratios","volume":"22","author":"Lim","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Appl. Phycol."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Akbar, M.A., Mohd, Y.N., Usup, G., Ahmad, A., Baharum, S.N., and Bunawan, H. (2023). Nutrient Deficiencies Impact on the Cellular and Metabolic Responses of Saxitoxin Producing Alexandrium minutum: A Transcriptomic Perspective. Mar. Drugs, 21.","DOI":"10.3390\/md21090497"},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102473","DOI":"10.1016\/j.hal.2023.102473","article-title":"Effects of Nitrate on the Saxitoxins Biosynthesis Revealed by Sxt Genes in the Toxic Dinoflagellate Alexandrium pacificum (Group IV)","volume":"127","author":"Abassi","year":"2023","journal-title":"Harmful Algae"},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Vilar, M., Rodrigues, T., Silva, L.O., Pacheco, A., Ferrao-Filho, A.S., and Azevedo, S. (2021). Ecophysiological Aspects and Sxt Genes Expression Underlying Induced Chemical Defense in STX-Producing Raphidiopsis raciborskii (Cyanobacteria) against the Zooplankter Daphnia Gessneri. Toxins, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/toxins13060406"},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"122930","DOI":"10.1016\/j.watres.2024.122930","article-title":"Toxin Production in Bloom-Forming, Harmful Alga Alexandrium pacificum (Group IV) Is Regulated by Cyst Formation-Promoting Bacteria Jannaschia cystaugens NBRC 100362(T)","volume":"272","author":"Jiang","year":"2025","journal-title":"Water Res."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"845","DOI":"10.1002\/cbic.202000675","article-title":"Heterologous Expression of an Unusual Ketosynthase, SxtA, Leads to Production of Saxitoxin Intermediates in Escherichia Coli","volume":"22","author":"Soeriyadi","year":"2021","journal-title":"Chembiochem Eur. J. Chem. Biol."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"D\u2019Agostino, P.M., Al-Sinawi, B., Mazmouz, R., Muenchhoff, J., Neilan, B.A., and Moffitt, M.C. (2020). Identification of Promoter Elements in the Dolichospermum circinale AWQC131C Saxitoxin Gene Cluster and the Experimental Analysis of Their Use for Heterologous Expression. BMC Microbiol., 20.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12866-020-1720-3"},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9091","DOI":"10.1021\/jacs.5c00666","article-title":"Synthesis of (+)-Saxitoxin Facilitated by a Chiral Auxiliary for Photocycloadditions Involving Alkenylboronate Esters","volume":"147","author":"Jiao","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Am. Chem. Soc."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Greenhough, H., Waugh, C., van Ginkel, R., Bowater, J., Kaur, G., Oakly, J., Plouviez, M., Ingebrigtsen, R.A., Svenson, J., and Selwood, A.I. (2025). Mass Cultivation of the Dinoflagellate Alexandrium pacificum for Gonyautoxin-1,4 Production. Sci. Rep., 15.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-025-91576-x"},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102474","DOI":"10.1016\/j.hal.2023.102474","article-title":"Phycotoxins in Bivalves from the Western Canadian Arctic: The First Evidence of Toxigenicity","volume":"127","author":"Rourke","year":"2023","journal-title":"Harmful Algae"},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"118017","DOI":"10.1016\/j.marpolbul.2025.118017","article-title":"Cyanotoxins on the Move\u2014Freshwater Origins with Marine Consequences: A Systematic Review of Global Changes and Emerging Trends","volume":"216","author":"Fraga","year":"2025","journal-title":"Mar. Pollut. Bull."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"174094","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2024.174094","article-title":"Effect of Temperature, Salinity and Nutrients on the Growth and Toxin Content of the Dinoflagellate Gymnodinium catenatum from the Southwestern Mediterranean","volume":"945","author":"Aboualaalaa","year":"2024","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"259","DOI":"10.1007\/s10661-024-12429-0","article-title":"Assessment of the Health Risks Associated with the Consumption of Bivalve Mollusks Potentially Contaminated with Phycotoxins from the Coastal Ecosystem of the Ebri\u00e9 Lagoon, C\u00f4te d\u2019Ivoire","volume":"196","author":"Vianney","year":"2024","journal-title":"Environ. Monit. Assess."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"141","DOI":"10.1016\/j.toxicon.2010.10.015","article-title":"First Report about Saxitoxins in Freshwater Fish Hoplias malabaricus through Trophic Exposure","volume":"57","author":"Da","year":"2011","journal-title":"Toxicon"},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"116546","DOI":"10.1016\/j.marpolbul.2024.116546","article-title":"Transcriptome Response of a Marine Copepod in Response to Environmentally-Relevant Concentrations of Saxitoxin","volume":"205","author":"Niu","year":"2024","journal-title":"Mar. Pollut. Bull."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Barbosa, V., Santos, M., Anacleto, P., Maulvault, A.L., Pousao-Ferreira, P., Costa, P.R., and Marques, A. (2019). Paralytic Shellfish Toxins and Ocean Warming: Bioaccumulation and Ecotoxicological Responses in Juvenile Gilthead Seabream (Sparus aurata). Toxins, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/toxins11070408"},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"759","DOI":"10.1080\/15563650.2022.2034840","article-title":"Human Poisonings by Neurotoxic Phycotoxins Related to the Consumption of Shellfish: Study of Cases Registered by the French Poison Control Centres from 2012 to 2019","volume":"60","author":"Abadie","year":"2022","journal-title":"Clin. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102581","DOI":"10.1016\/j.hal.2024.102581","article-title":"Multispecies Mass Mortality in the Beagle Channel Associated with Paralytic Shellfish Toxins","volume":"132","author":"Cadaillon","year":"2024","journal-title":"Harmful Algae"},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102771","DOI":"10.1016\/j.hal.2024.102771","article-title":"Metabolic Transformation of Paralytic Shellfish Toxins in the Mussel Mytilus galloprovincialis under Different Exposure Modes","volume":"141","author":"Zheng","year":"2025","journal-title":"Harmful Algae"},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101730","DOI":"10.1016\/j.hal.2019.101730","article-title":"Algal Toxins in Alaskan Seabirds: Evaluating the Role of Saxitoxin and Domoic Acid in a Large-Scale Die-off of Common Murres","volume":"92","author":"Hemert","year":"2020","journal-title":"Harmful Algae"},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"933","DOI":"10.7589\/2013-11-296","article-title":"Fatal Paralytic Shellfish Poisoning in Kittlitz\u2019s Murrelet (Brachyramphus brevirostris) Nestlings, Alaska, USA","volume":"50","author":"Lance","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Wildl. Dis."},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102653","DOI":"10.1016\/j.hal.2024.102653","article-title":"Estimating the Risks of Exposure to Harmful Algal Toxins among Scottish Harbour Seals","volume":"136","author":"Hall","year":"2024","journal-title":"Harmful Algae"},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"303","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuro.2024.11.003","article-title":"Developmental Exposure of Zebrafish to Saxitoxin Causes Altered Expression of Genes Associated with Axonal Growth","volume":"105","author":"Aluru","year":"2024","journal-title":"Neurotoxicology"},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Litaker, R.W., Matweyou, J.A., Kibler, S.R., Hardison, D.R., Holland, W.C., and Tester, P.A. (2025). Paralytic Shellfish Toxins in Alaskan Butter Clams: Does Cleaning Make Them Safe to Eat?. Toxins, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/toxins17060271"},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e61","DOI":"10.1093\/jat\/bky031","article-title":"Saxitoxin Exposure Confirmed by Human Urine and Food Analysis","volume":"42","author":"Coleman","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Anal. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Vilarino, N., Louzao, M.C., Abal, P., Cagide, E., Carrera, C., Vieytes, M.R., and Botana, L.M. (2018). Human Poisoning from Marine Toxins: Unknowns for Optimal Consumer Protection. Toxins, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/toxins10080324"},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104694","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jwpe.2023.104694","article-title":"Removal of a Cyanotoxins Mixture by Loose Nanofiltration Membranes Applied in Drinking Water Production","volume":"57","author":"Lebad","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Water Process Eng."},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"544","DOI":"10.2166\/wh.2009.075","article-title":"Optimising Water Treatment Practices for the Removal of Anabaena circinalis and Its Associated Metabolites, Geosmin and Saxitoxins","volume":"7","author":"Ho","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Water Health"},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4455","DOI":"10.1016\/j.watres.2004.08.024","article-title":"Removal of Saxitoxins from Drinking Water by Granular Activated Carbon, Ozone and Hydrogen Peroxide\u2014Implications for Compliance with the Australian Drinking Water Guidelines","volume":"38","author":"Orr","year":"2004","journal-title":"Water Res."},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"125696","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jenvman.2025.125696","article-title":"The Ability of Hydrogen Peroxide (H2O2) to Degrade Saxitoxin-, Microcystin-, Anatoxin-, and Non-Toxin-Producing Strains of the Harmful Cyanobacterium, Dolichospermum","volume":"387","author":"Gobler","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Environ. Manage."},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"91","DOI":"10.1016\/j.toxicon.2008.05.005","article-title":"Bacterial Degradation of Paralytic Shellfish Toxins","volume":"52","author":"Donovan","year":"2008","journal-title":"Toxicon"},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"143965","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chemosphere.2024.143965","article-title":"Investigation of Adsorption Parameters of Saxitoxin onto Loblolly Pine-Derived Biochar Synthesized at Various Pyrolysis Temperature","volume":"370","author":"Chambers","year":"2025","journal-title":"Chemosphere"},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1472","DOI":"10.2166\/wh.2024.106","article-title":"Review of the Occurrence, Treatment Technologies, and Detection Methods for Saxitoxins in Freshwaters","volume":"22","author":"Gawankar","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Water Health"},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"629","DOI":"10.1016\/S0006-3495(86)83690-6","article-title":"Saxitoxin and Tetrodotoxin. Electrostatic Effects on Sodium Channel Gating Current in Crayfish Axons","volume":"49","author":"Heggeness","year":"1986","journal-title":"Biophys. J."},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S15-48","DOI":"10.1152\/physrev.1992.72.suppl_4.S15","article-title":"Cellular and Molecular Biology of Voltage-Gated Sodium Channels","volume":"72","author":"Catterall","year":"1992","journal-title":"Physiol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1667","DOI":"10.1016\/S0021-9258(17)43460-0","article-title":"The Sodium Channel from Rat Brain. Purification and Subunit Composition","volume":"259","author":"Hartshorne","year":"1984","journal-title":"J. Biol. Chem."},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tikhonov, D.B., and Zhorov, B.S. (2018). Predicting Structural Details of the Sodium Channel Pore Basing on Animal Toxin Studies. Front. Pharmacol., 9.","DOI":"10.3389\/fphar.2018.00880"},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"eaau2486","DOI":"10.1126\/science.aau2486","article-title":"Structure of the Human Voltage-Gated Sodium Channel Na(v)1.4 in Complex with Beta1","volume":"362","author":"Pan","year":"2018","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1498","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.07-05-01498.1987","article-title":"Mu-Conotoxins Share a Common Binding Site with Tetrodotoxin\/Saxitoxin on Eel Electroplax Na Channels","volume":"7","author":"Yanagawa","year":"1987","journal-title":"J. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"eaau2596","DOI":"10.1126\/science.aau2596","article-title":"Structural Basis for the Modulation of Voltage-Gated Sodium Channels by Animal Toxins","volume":"362","author":"Shen","year":"2018","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.1016\/S0896-6273(00)81133-2","article-title":"From Ionic Currents to Molecular Mechanisms: The Structure and Function of Voltage-Gated Sodium Channels","volume":"26","author":"Catterall","year":"2000","journal-title":"Neuron"},{"key":"ref_118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1945","DOI":"10.1016\/S0006-3495(99)77036-0","article-title":"Voltage-Dependent Sodium Channel Function Is Regulated through Membrane Mechanics","volume":"77","author":"Shcherbatko","year":"1999","journal-title":"Biophys. J."},{"key":"ref_119","first-page":"438","article-title":"Vasomotor and Respiratory Depressant Actions of Tetrodotoxin and Saxitoxin","volume":"165","author":"Kao","year":"1967","journal-title":"Arch. Int. Pharmacodyn. Ther."},{"key":"ref_120","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"200","DOI":"10.1039\/b501296c","article-title":"Saxitoxin, a Toxic Marine Natural Product That Targets a Multitude of Receptors","volume":"23","author":"Llewellyn","year":"2006","journal-title":"Nat. Prod. Rep."},{"key":"ref_121","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"483","DOI":"10.1097\/00001756-200103050-00012","article-title":"Sodium Channel Beta1 and Beta2 Subunits Parallel SNS\/PN3 Alpha-Subunit Changes in Injured Human Sensory Neurons","volume":"12","author":"Coward","year":"2001","journal-title":"Neuroreport"},{"key":"ref_122","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"211","DOI":"10.1016\/S0021-9258(17)42455-0","article-title":"The Sodium Channel from Rat Brain. Role of the Beta 1 and Beta 2 Subunits in Saxitoxin Binding","volume":"261","author":"Messner","year":"1986","journal-title":"J. Biol. Chem."},{"key":"ref_123","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1067","DOI":"10.1007\/s00018-011-0832-1","article-title":"Voltage-Gated Sodium Channel-Associated Proteins and Alternative Mechanisms of Inactivation and Block","volume":"69","author":"Goldfarb","year":"2012","journal-title":"Cell Mol. Life Sci."},{"key":"ref_124","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1007\/BFb0037088","article-title":"The Binding of Saxitoxin and Tetrodotoxin to Excitable Tissue","volume":"79","author":"Ritchie","year":"1977","journal-title":"Rev. Physiol. Biochem. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_125","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"93","DOI":"10.1016\/0014-5793(91)81159-6","article-title":"Mapping the Site of Block by Tetrodotoxin and Saxitoxin of Sodium Channel II","volume":"293","author":"Terlau","year":"1991","journal-title":"FEBS Lett."},{"key":"ref_126","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5321","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.83.14.5321","article-title":"Discrimination of Muscle and Neuronal Na-Channel Subtypes by Binding Competition between [3H]Saxitoxin and Mu-Conotoxins","volume":"83","author":"Moczydlowski","year":"1986","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_127","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"526","DOI":"10.1016\/S0026-895X(25)14335-6","article-title":"High-Affinity Saxitoxin Receptor Sites in Vertebrate Heart. Evidence for Sites Associated with Autonomic Nerve Endings","volume":"20","author":"Catterall","year":"1981","journal-title":"Mol. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_128","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"eaax2650","DOI":"10.1126\/sciadv.aax2650","article-title":"Structure of the Saxiphilin:Saxitoxin (STX) Complex Reveals a Convergent Molecular Recognition Strategy for Paralytic Toxins","volume":"5","author":"Yen","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sci. Adv."},{"key":"ref_129","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"124404","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chemosphere.2019.124404","article-title":"Tetrodotoxin in Marine Bivalves and Edible Gastropods: A Mini-Review","volume":"236","author":"Biessy","year":"2019","journal-title":"Chemosphere"},{"key":"ref_130","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18102","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1206952109","article-title":"Marked Difference in Saxitoxin and Tetrodotoxin Affinity for the Human Nociceptive Voltage-Gated Sodium Channel (Nav1.7) [Corrected]","volume":"109","author":"Walker","year":"2012","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_131","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Boente-Juncal, A., Otero, P., Rodriguez, I., Camina, M., Rodriguez-Vieytes, M., Vale, C., and Botana, L.M. (2020). Oral Chronic Toxicity of the Safe Tetrodotoxin Dose Proposed by the European Food Safety Authority and Its Additive Effect with Saxitoxin. Toxins, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/toxins12050312"},{"key":"ref_132","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"348","DOI":"10.1177\/0192623310388431","article-title":"Gavage-Related Reflux in Rats: Identification, Pathogenesis, and Toxicological Implications (Review)","volume":"39","author":"Damsch","year":"2011","journal-title":"Toxicol. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_133","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Finch, S.C., Webb, N.G., Boundy, M.J., Harwood, D.T., Munday, J.S., Sprosen, J.M., Somchit, C., and Broadhurst, R.B. (2023). A Sub-Acute Dosing Study of Saxitoxin and Tetrodotoxin Mixtures in Mice Suggests That the Current Paralytic Shellfish Toxin Regulatory Limit Is Fit for Purpose. Toxins, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/toxins15070437"},{"key":"ref_134","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Finch, S.C., Boundy, M.J., and Harwood, D.T. (2018). The Acute Toxicity of Tetrodotoxin and Tetrodotoxin(-)Saxitoxin Mixtures to Mice by Various Routes of Administration. Toxins, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/toxins10110423"},{"key":"ref_135","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"55","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jns.2006.06.004","article-title":"Neurologists and the Threat of Bioterrorism","volume":"249","author":"Donaghy","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Neurol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_136","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1426","DOI":"10.1021\/acschembio.8b00173","article-title":"Self-Resistance of Natural Product Producers: Past, Present, and Future Focusing on Self-Resistant Protein Variants","volume":"13","author":"Almabruk","year":"2018","journal-title":"ACS Chem. Biol."},{"key":"ref_137","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e46756","DOI":"10.15252\/embr.201846756","article-title":"Do Not Poison Thyself: Mechanisms to Avoid Self-Toxicity Could Inspire Novel Compounds and Pathways for Synthetic Biology and Applications for Agriculture","volume":"19","author":"Hunter","year":"2018","journal-title":"EMBO Rep."},{"key":"ref_138","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1261","DOI":"10.1126\/science.aan5061","article-title":"Interacting Amino Acid Replacements Allow Poison Frogs to Evolve Epibatidine Resistance","volume":"357","author":"Tarvin","year":"2017","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_139","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"763","DOI":"10.1038\/nature03415","article-title":"Sodium Channel Mutation Leading to Saxitoxin Resistance in Clams Increases Risk of PSP","volume":"434","author":"Bricelj","year":"2005","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_140","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1202","DOI":"10.1126\/science.256.5060.1202","article-title":"A Mutant of TTX-Resistant Cardiac Sodium Channels with TTX-Sensitive Properties","volume":"256","author":"Satin","year":"1992","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_141","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"53","DOI":"10.1016\/0041-0101(91)90039-T","article-title":"Pharmacological and Biochemical Properties of Saxiphilin, a Soluble Saxitoxin-Binding Protein from the Bullfrog (Rana catesbeiana)","volume":"29","author":"Mahar","year":"1991","journal-title":"Toxicon"},{"key":"ref_142","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"25","DOI":"10.1016\/0041-0101(67)90114-6","article-title":"Differentiation of the Actions of Tetrodotoxin and Saxitoxin","volume":"5","author":"Kao","year":"1967","journal-title":"Toxicon"},{"key":"ref_143","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1117","DOI":"10.1126\/science.6278588","article-title":"Saxitoxin Binding Sites in Frog-Myocardial Cytosol","volume":"215","author":"Doyle","year":"1982","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_144","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6651","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.92.14.6651","article-title":"Molecular Cloning of Bullfrog Saxiphilin: A Unique Relative of the Transferrin Family That Binds Saxitoxin","volume":"92","author":"Morabito","year":"1995","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_145","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12312","DOI":"10.1021\/bi00206a039","article-title":"Characterization of Saxitoxin Binding to Saxiphilin, a Relative of the Transferrin Family That Displays pH-Dependent Ligand Binding","volume":"33","author":"Llewellyn","year":"1994","journal-title":"Biochemistry"},{"key":"ref_146","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2210114119","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.2210114119","article-title":"Definition of a Saxitoxin (STX) Binding Code Enables Discovery and Characterization of the Anuran Saxiphilin Family","volume":"119","author":"Chen","year":"2022","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_147","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"547","DOI":"10.1126\/science.7209548","article-title":"Transformation of Paralytic Shellfish Toxins as Demonstrated in Scallop Homogenates","volume":"212","author":"Shimizu","year":"1981","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_148","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"465","DOI":"10.1016\/0006-291X(83)90803-3","article-title":"Enzymatic Transformation of PSP Toxins in the Littleneck Clam (Protothaca staminea)","volume":"114","author":"Sullivan","year":"1983","journal-title":"Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun."},{"key":"ref_149","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Raposo, M.I.C., Gomes, M.T.S.R., Botelho, M.J., and Rudnitskaya, A. (2020). Paralytic Shellfish Toxins (PST)-Transforming Enzymes: A Review. Toxins, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/toxins12050344"},{"key":"ref_150","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2127","DOI":"10.3390\/toxins6072127","article-title":"Removal of Paralytic Shellfish Toxins by Probiotic Lactic Acid Bacteria","volume":"6","author":"Vasama","year":"2014","journal-title":"Toxins"},{"key":"ref_151","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6919","DOI":"10.1128\/AEM.01384-09","article-title":"Pseudoalteromonas Bacteria Are Capable of Degrading Paralytic Shellfish Toxins","volume":"75","author":"Donovan","year":"2009","journal-title":"Appl. Environ. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_152","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1518","DOI":"10.1021\/np800066r","article-title":"Isolation and Structure Elucidation of New and Unusual Saxitoxin Analogues from Mussels","volume":"71","author":"Walter","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Nat. Prod."},{"key":"ref_153","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5494","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.jafc.7b02101","article-title":"Proposed Biotransformation Pathways for New Metabolites of Paralytic Shellfish Toxins Based on Field and Experimental Mussel Samples","volume":"65","author":"Ding","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Agric. Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_154","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"233","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aquatox.2018.05.003","article-title":"Dynamics of Paralytic Shellfish Toxins and Their Metabolites during Timecourse Exposure of Scallops Chlamys Farreri and Mussels Mytilus galloprovincialis to Alexandrium pacificum","volume":"200","author":"Qiu","year":"2018","journal-title":"Aquat. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_155","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"287","DOI":"10.1016\/S0006-3495(03)74849-8","article-title":"Interactions of the C-11 Hydroxyl of Tetrodotoxin with the Sodium Channel Outer Vestibule","volume":"84","author":"Choudhary","year":"2003","journal-title":"Biophys. J."},{"key":"ref_156","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1427","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.jafc.9b07063","article-title":"Conversion and Stability of New Metabolites of Paralytic Shellfish Toxins under Different Temperature and pH Conditions","volume":"68","author":"Che","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Agric. Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_157","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1257","DOI":"10.1007\/s00216-010-4428-7","article-title":"Comparison of AOAC 2005.06 LC Official Method with Other Methodologies for the Quantitation of Paralytic Shellfish Poisoning Toxins in UK Shellfish Species","volume":"399","author":"Turner","year":"2011","journal-title":"Anal. Bioanal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_158","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2084","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envpol.2010.03.007","article-title":"A Rapid Bioassay for Detecting Saxitoxins Using a Daphnia Acute Toxicity Test","volume":"158","author":"Soares","year":"2010","journal-title":"Environ. Pollut."},{"key":"ref_159","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"162","DOI":"10.1080\/19440049.2019.1676919","article-title":"Neuro-2a Cell-Based Assay for Toxicity Equivalency Factor\u2014Proposal and Evaluation in Chilean Contaminated Shellfish Samples","volume":"37","author":"Rivera","year":"2020","journal-title":"Food Addit. Contam. Part. Chem. Anal. Control Expo. Risk Assess."},{"key":"ref_160","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"621","DOI":"10.1080\/15287394.2011.534426","article-title":"Alternative Bioassay for the Detection of Saxitoxin Using the Speckled Cockroach (Nauphoeta cinerea)","volume":"74","author":"Ruebhart","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Toxicol. Environ. Health A"},{"key":"ref_161","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"57","DOI":"10.1016\/0887-2333(94)00194-Y","article-title":"Toxicological Evaluation of Saxitoxin, Neosaxitoxin, Gonyautoxin II, Gonyautoxin II plus III and Decarbamoylsaxitoxin with the Mouse Neuroblastoma Cell Bioassay","volume":"9","author":"Jellett","year":"1995","journal-title":"Toxicol. Vitr."},{"key":"ref_162","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"521","DOI":"10.1093\/jaoac\/78.2.521","article-title":"Detection of Sodium Channel Toxins: Directed Cytotoxicity Assays of Purified Ciguatoxins, Brevetoxins, Saxitoxins, and Seafood Extracts","volume":"78","author":"Manger","year":"1995","journal-title":"J. AOAC Int."},{"key":"ref_163","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"540","DOI":"10.1093\/jaoac\/86.3.540","article-title":"Detection of Paralytic Shellfish Poison by Rapid Cell Bioassay: Antagonism of Voltage-Gated Sodium Channel Active Toxins in Vitro","volume":"86","author":"Manger","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. AOAC Int."},{"key":"ref_164","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"93","DOI":"10.1016\/j.toxicon.2005.03.018","article-title":"A Rapid Detection Method for Paralytic Shellfish Poisoning Toxins by Cell Bioassay","volume":"46","author":"Okumura","year":"2005","journal-title":"Toxicon"},{"key":"ref_165","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Charapata, P., Bowers, E.K., Hardison, D.R., Kibler, S., Anderson, D.M., Fachon, E., and Lefebvre, K.A. (2025). Paralytic Shellfish Toxin Concentrations Measured in Alaskan Arctic Clams Using ELISA and HPLC Methods. Toxins, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/toxins17020060"},{"key":"ref_166","first-page":"13","article-title":"Indirect Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay for Saxitoxin in Shellfish","volume":"68","author":"Chu","year":"1985","journal-title":"J. Assoc. Anal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_167","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"632","DOI":"10.1093\/jaoac\/85.3.632","article-title":"Assessment of MIST AlertTM, a Commercial Qualitative Assay for Detection of Paralytic Shellfish Poisoning Toxins in Bivalve Molluscs","volume":"85","author":"Mackintosh","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. AOAC Int."},{"key":"ref_168","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1407","DOI":"10.1016\/S0041-0101(02)00153-8","article-title":"Detection of Paralytic Shellfish Poisoning (PSP) Toxins in Shellfish Tissue Using MIST Alert, a New Rapid Test, in Parallel with the Regulatory AOAC Mouse Bioassay","volume":"40","author":"Jellett","year":"2002","journal-title":"Toxicon"},{"key":"ref_169","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1410","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.analchem.4c05998","article-title":"Ultrasensitive \u201cHunter of Target\u201d: Rabbit Monoclonal Antibody-Based Competitive Lateral Flow Immunoassay for Saxitoxin","volume":"97","author":"Wei","year":"2025","journal-title":"Anal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_170","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"342134","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aca.2023.342134","article-title":"Development of a Highly Sensitive Aptamer-Based Electrochemical Sensor for Detecting Saxitoxin Based on K3Fe(CN)6 Regulated Silver Nanoparticles","volume":"1287","author":"Zeng","year":"2024","journal-title":"Anal. Chim. Acta"},{"key":"ref_171","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"51","DOI":"10.1006\/abio.1998.2707","article-title":"A High-Throughput, Microtiter Plate Assay for Paralytic Shellfish Poisons Using the Saxitoxin-Specific Receptor, Saxiphilin","volume":"261","author":"Llewellyn","year":"1998","journal-title":"Anal. Biochem."},{"key":"ref_172","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"283","DOI":"10.1016\/S0041-0101(97)00119-0","article-title":"Comparative Analyses by HPLC and the Sodium Channel and Saxiphilin 3H-Saxitoxin Receptor Assays for Paralytic Shellfish Toxins in Crustaceans and Molluscs from Tropical North West Australia","volume":"36","author":"Negri","year":"1998","journal-title":"Toxicon"},{"key":"ref_173","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"28","DOI":"10.1016\/j.toxicon.2017.02.003","article-title":"Quantification of PSP Toxins in Toxic Shellfish Matrices Using Post-Column Oxidation Liquid Chromatography and Pre-Column Oxidation Liquid Chromatography Methods Suggests Post-Column Oxidation Liquid Chromatography as a Good Monitoring Method of Choice","volume":"129","author":"Rey","year":"2017","journal-title":"Toxicon"},{"key":"ref_174","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"479","DOI":"10.1080\/19440049.2025.2472360","article-title":"Time Dependence of the Pre-Chromatographic Oxidation Method for Bivalves Contaminated with Paralytic Shellfish Poisoning Toxins","volume":"42","author":"Vale","year":"2025","journal-title":"Food Addit. Contam. Part. Chem. Anal. Control Expo. Risk Assess."},{"key":"ref_175","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5487","DOI":"10.1007\/s00216-015-8722-2","article-title":"Determination of BMAA and Three Alkaloid Cyanotoxins in Lake Water Using Dansyl Chloride Derivatization and High-Resolution Mass Spectrometry","volume":"407","author":"Solliec","year":"2015","journal-title":"Anal. Bioanal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_176","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102854","DOI":"10.1016\/j.hal.2025.102854","article-title":"Seasonal Monitoring of Dissolved and Particulate Algal Biotoxins in the Northern Salish Sea Using High Performance Liquid Chromatography and Tandem Mass Spectrometry","volume":"145","author":"Ross","year":"2025","journal-title":"Harmful Algae"},{"key":"ref_177","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gallo, P., Lambiase, S., Duro, I., Esposito, M., and Pepe, A. (2024). Paralytic Shellfish Poisoning (PSP) Toxins in Bivalve Molluscs from Southern Italy Analysed by Liquid Chromatography Coupled with High-Resolution Mass Spectrometry (UHPLC-HRMS\/MS). Toxins, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/toxins16110502"},{"key":"ref_178","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"609","DOI":"10.5740\/jaoacint.14-275","article-title":"Single-Laboratory Validation of a Multitoxin Ultra-Performance LC-Hydrophilic Interaction LC-MS\/MS Method for Quantitation of Paralytic Shellfish Toxins in Bivalve Shellfish","volume":"98","author":"Turner","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. AOAC Int."},{"key":"ref_179","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"66","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chroma.2019.03.066","article-title":"Determination of Microcystins, Nodularin, Anatoxin-a, Cylindrospermopsin, and Saxitoxin in Water and Fish Tissue Using Isotope Dilution Liquid Chromatography Tandem Mass Spectrometry","volume":"1599","author":"Haddad","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Chromatogr. A"},{"key":"ref_180","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"129","DOI":"10.3358\/shokueishi.65.129","article-title":"Validation Study of LC-MS\/MS for Paralytic Shellfish Toxins and Tetrodotoxin in Scallops","volume":"65","author":"Numano","year":"2024","journal-title":"Shokuhin Eiseigaku Zasshi"},{"key":"ref_181","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yue, Y., Zhu, B., Lun, L., and Xu, N. (2020). Quantifications of Saxitoxin Concentrations in Bivalves by High Performance Liquid Chromatography-Tandem Mass Spectrometry with the Purification of Immunoaffinity Column. J. Chromatogr. B Anal. Technol. Biomed. Life Sci., 1147.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jchromb.2020.122133"},{"key":"ref_182","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"119","DOI":"10.1093\/jat\/bkad092","article-title":"A Fast and Reliable LC-MS-MS Method for the Quantification of Saxitoxin in Blood Plasma Samples","volume":"48","author":"Odehnalova","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Anal. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_183","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"45","DOI":"10.1016\/S0021-9673(03)00485-0","article-title":"Liquid Chromatography-Electrospray Ionisation-Mass Spectrometry Based Method for the Simultaneous Determination of Algal and Cyanobacterial Toxins in Phytoplankton from Marine Waters and Lakes Followed by Tentative Structural Elucidation of Microcystins","volume":"994","author":"Dahlmann","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Chromatogr. A"},{"key":"ref_184","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"897","DOI":"10.1016\/0041-0101(83)90081-8","article-title":"Occurrence of Saxitoxin and Other Toxins in the Liver of the Pufferfish Takifugu Pardalis","volume":"21","author":"Kodama","year":"1983","journal-title":"Toxicon"},{"key":"ref_185","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"657","DOI":"10.1016\/S0021-9673(99)00698-6","article-title":"Separation of Paralytic Shellfish Poisoning Toxins on Chromarods-SIII by Thin-Layer Chromatography with the Iatroscan (Mark 5) and Flame Thermionic Detection","volume":"855","author":"Indrasena","year":"1999","journal-title":"J. Chromatogr. A"},{"key":"ref_186","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e51","DOI":"10.1136\/vr.105949","article-title":"Vaquitas (Phocoena sinus) Continue to Die from Bycatch Not Pollutants","volume":"187","author":"Gulland","year":"2020","journal-title":"Vet. Rec."},{"key":"ref_187","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1306","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.77.3.1306","article-title":"Purification from Rat Sarcolemma of the Saxitoxin-Binding Component of the Excitable Membrane Sodium Channel","volume":"77","author":"Barchi","year":"1980","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_188","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"399","DOI":"10.1002\/jssc.200500386","article-title":"Determination of Paralytic Shellfish Toxins in Dinoflagellate Alexandrium tamarense by Using Isotachophoresis\/Capillary Electrophoresis","volume":"29","author":"Wu","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Sep. Sci."},{"key":"ref_189","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"143114","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chemosphere.2024.143114","article-title":"Enhancing Early Warning: A DNA Biosensor with Polyaniline\/Graphene Nanocomposite for Label-Free Voltammetric Detection of Saxitoxin-Producing Harmful Algae","volume":"364","author":"Chwan","year":"2024","journal-title":"Chemosphere"},{"key":"ref_190","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"46495","DOI":"10.1021\/acsami.4c11419","article-title":"Nanoflower Microreactor Based Versatile Enhancer for Recognition Cofactor-Dependent Enzyme Biocatalysis toward Saxitoxin Detection","volume":"16","author":"Wei","year":"2024","journal-title":"ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces"},{"key":"ref_191","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"344213","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aca.2025.344213","article-title":"Luxuriant Foliage: High-Sensitivity Detection of Saxitoxin Using an Enzyme-Assisted Double-Cycling Amplification SERS Aptamer Sensor","volume":"1364","author":"Liu","year":"2025","journal-title":"Anal. Chim. Acta"},{"key":"ref_192","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"171236","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2024.171236","article-title":"Development of Magnetic Fluorescence Aptasensor for Sensitive Detection of Saxitoxin Based on Fe3O4@Au-Pt Nanozymes","volume":"921","author":"Zhu","year":"2024","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_193","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7429","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.analchem.5c00215","article-title":"Novel Clean-Background Coffee Ring SERS Platform for Trace Toxin Analysis","volume":"97","author":"Zeng","year":"2025","journal-title":"Anal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_194","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Celio, L., Ottaviani, M., Cancelliere, R., Di Tinno, A., Panjan, P., Sesay, A.M., and Micheli, L. (2021). Microfluidic Flow Injection Immunoassay System for Algal Toxins Determination: A Case of Study. Front. Chem., 9.","DOI":"10.3389\/fchem.2021.626630"},{"key":"ref_195","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hyung, J.-H., Hwang, J., Moon, S.-J., Kim, E.-J., Kim, D.-W., and Park, J. (2022). Development of a Method for Detecting Alexandrium pacificum Based on the Quantification of sxtA4 by Chip-Based Digital PCR. Toxins, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/toxins14020111"},{"key":"ref_196","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"865","DOI":"10.1016\/j.snb.2018.12.083","article-title":"Re-Modeling ELISA Kits Embedded in an Automated System Suitable for On-Line Detection of Algal Toxins in Seawater","volume":"283","author":"Petropoulos","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators B Chem."},{"key":"ref_197","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"190","DOI":"10.1006\/abio.1993.1476","article-title":"Tetrazolium-Based Cell Bioassay for Neurotoxins Active on Voltage-Sensitive Sodium Channels: Semiautomated Assay for Saxitoxins, Brevetoxins, and Ciguatoxins","volume":"214","author":"Manger","year":"1993","journal-title":"Anal. Biochem."},{"key":"ref_198","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"795","DOI":"10.5740\/jaoacint.CS2011_27","article-title":"Determination of Paralytic Shellfish Toxins in Shellfish by Receptor Binding Assay: Collaborative Study","volume":"95","author":"Fire","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. AOAC Int."},{"key":"ref_199","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kai, M., Shen, W.-T., Yu, Y., Wang, D., Zhang, J.A., Wang, S., Fang, R.H., Gao, W., and Zhang, L. (2024). Dual-Modal Cellular Nanoparticles for Continuous Neurotoxin Detoxification. Nano Lett., Online ahead of print.","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.nanolett.4c01798"},{"key":"ref_200","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2444","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-023-37002-0","article-title":"An Aptamer-Based Depot System for Sustained Release of Small Molecule Therapeutics","volume":"14","author":"Wang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."}],"container-title":["Marine Drugs"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1660-3397\/23\/7\/277\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,9]],"date-time":"2025-10-09T18:02:57Z","timestamp":1760032977000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1660-3397\/23\/7\/277"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,2]]},"references-count":200,"journal-issue":{"issue":"7","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,7]]}},"alternative-id":["md23070277"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/md23070277","relation":{},"ISSN":["1660-3397"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1660-3397","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,2]]}}}