{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,2]],"date-time":"2026-09-02T15:15:40Z","timestamp":1788362140246,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":95,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"9","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,2]],"date-time":"2026-09-02T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1788307200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100000046","name":"National Research Council Canada","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100000046","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/04mte1k06","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Mar. Drugs","Marine Drugs"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The global seafood industry generates substantial quantities of processing by-products such as heads, viscera, skin, bones, scales, and shells. These residues represent an underutilized resource rich in proteins, lipids, minerals, enzymes, and polysaccharides. Conventional valorization approaches such as chemical extraction, wet rendering, and enzymatic hydrolysis have been used to recover valuable compounds from seafood waste. However, conventional methods often involve high chemical consumption, long processing times, and environmental concerns. Green extraction technologies have emerged as promising alternatives, with subcritical water extraction (SWE) gaining significant attention due to its unique properties and ability to simultaneously extract and convert biomass components. This review provides a comprehensive overview of the valorization of seafood processing wastes using SWE. Particular emphasis is placed on the physicochemical properties of subcritical water, the reaction mechanisms governing the hydrolysis and transformation of proteins, lipids, and polysaccharides, and the key parameters influencing extraction performance. Recent advances in the recovery of value-added products such as amino acids, bioactive peptides, protein hydrolysates, omega-3-rich oils, chitin derivatives, and mineral-rich materials are summarized. In addition, the integration of SWE with complementary technologies such as supercritical CO2 extraction, enzymatic hydrolysis, and hydrothermal carbonization is examined as a strategy for developing integrated seafood biorefineries.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/md24090307","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,2]],"date-time":"2026-09-02T14:35:29Z","timestamp":1788359729000},"page":"307","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Valorization of Seafood Processing Wastes Using Subcritical Water Extraction\u2014A Comprehensive Review"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"24","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8965-5788","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Laleh","family":"Nazari","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Aquatic and Crop Resource Development Research Centre, National Research Council of Canada, 1411 Oxford Street, Halifax, NS B3H 3Z1, Canada"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Melissa","family":"Kosik","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Aquatic and Crop Resource Development Research Centre, National Research Council of Canada, 1411 Oxford Street, Halifax, NS B3H 3Z1, Canada"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,2]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Coppola, D., Lauritano, C., Esposito, F.P., Riccio, G., Rizzo, C., and de Pascale, D. (2021). Fish Waste: From Problem to Valuable Resource. Mar. Drugs, 19.","DOI":"10.3390\/md19020116"},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (2026). The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture 2026, FAO."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tifs.2018.12.004","article-title":"Green and Innovative Techniques for Recovery of Valuable Compounds from Seafood By-Products and Discards: A Review","volume":"85","author":"Bruno","year":"2019","journal-title":"Trends Food Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"611835","DOI":"10.3389\/fsufs.2021.611835","article-title":"Valorization of Seafood Processing Discards: Bioconversion and Bio-Refinery Approaches","volume":"5","author":"Venugopal","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front. Sustain. Food Syst."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100022","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nexus.2021.100022","article-title":"Aquaculture Wastewater Treatment Technologies and Their Sustainability: A Review","volume":"4","author":"Tom","year":"2021","journal-title":"Energy Nexus"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"88","DOI":"10.1016\/j.supflu.2018.03.006","article-title":"Subcritical Water Hydrolysis for the Production of Bioactive Peptides from Tuna Skin Collagen","volume":"141","author":"Ahmed","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Supercrit. Fluids"},{"key":"ref_7","first-page":"716","article-title":"Extraction of Local Fish Waste by Subcritical Water","volume":"15","author":"Rahman","year":"2019","journal-title":"Malays. J. Fundam. Appl. Sci."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Melgosa, R., Marques, M., Paiva, A., Bernardo, A., Fern\u00e1ndez, N., S\u00e1-Nogueira, I., and Sim\u00f5es, P. (2021). Subcritical Water Extraction and Hydrolysis of Cod (Gadus Morhua) Frames to Produce Bioactive Protein Extracts. Foods, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/foods10061222"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"253","DOI":"10.1252\/jcej.37.253","article-title":"Sub-Critical Water Hydrolysis Treatment for Waste Squid Entrails and Production of Amino Acids, Organic Acids, and Fatty Acids","volume":"37","author":"Yoshida","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Chem. Eng. Jpn."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"456","DOI":"10.1016\/S1004-9541(08)60105-6","article-title":"Amino Acids Production from Fish Proteins Hydrolysis in Subcritical Water","volume":"16","author":"Xian","year":"2008","journal-title":"Chin. J. Chem. Eng."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"332","DOI":"10.1016\/j.carbpol.2017.05.055","article-title":"Hydroxyapatite Crystallization in Shrimp Cephalothorax Wastes during Subcritical Water Treatment for Chitin Extraction","volume":"172","author":"Bucio","year":"2017","journal-title":"Carbohydr. Polym."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17","DOI":"10.1016\/j.supflu.2019.02.007","article-title":"Effect of Temperature on Chemical Properties and Antioxidant Activities of Abalone Viscera Subcritical Water Extract","volume":"147","author":"Hao","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Supercrit. Fluids"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101829","DOI":"10.1016\/j.afres.2026.101829","article-title":"Subcritical Water Extraction (SWE) for Valorizing Fish Waste into Collagen: Current State and Future Prospects","volume":"6","author":"Ling","year":"2026","journal-title":"Appl. Food Res."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"617","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclepro.2018.01.091","article-title":"Current Scenario of Canadian Fishery and Corresponding Underutilized Species and Fishery Byproducts: A Potential Source of Omega-3 Fatty Acids","volume":"180","author":"Dave","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Clean. Prod."},{"key":"ref_15","unstructured":"Department of Fisheries and Oceans Canada (2026, May 22). Canada\u2019s Fisheries Fast Facts 2025. Available online: https:\/\/www.dfo-mpo.gc.ca\/stats\/publications\/fast-facts-info-eclair\/2025\/index-eng.html."},{"key":"ref_16","unstructured":"Department of Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO) (2026, May 22). Commercial Fisheries: Seafisheries Landed Quantity by Province. Available online: https:\/\/www.dfo-mpo.gc.ca\/stats\/commercial\/land-debarq\/sea-maritimes\/s2024pq-eng.htm."},{"key":"ref_17","unstructured":"Department of Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO) (2026, May 22). Commercial Fisheries: Fresh Water Landings. Available online: https:\/\/www.dfo-mpo.gc.ca\/stats\/commercial\/land-debarq\/freshwater-eaudouce\/2024-eng.htm."},{"key":"ref_18","unstructured":"Department of Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO) (2026, May 22). Aquaculture Production and Value. Available online: https:\/\/www.dfo-mpo.gc.ca\/stats\/aqua\/aqua24-eng.html."},{"key":"ref_19","unstructured":"Government of Canada (2026, May 22). Aquaculture in Atlantic Canada. Available online: https:\/\/www.canada.ca\/en\/atlantic-canada-opportunities\/services\/aquaculture-in-atlantic-canada.html."},{"key":"ref_20","first-page":"107","article-title":"Fish Processing Wastes as a Potential Source of Proteins, Amino Acids and Oils: A Critical Review","volume":"5","author":"Ghaly","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Microb. Biochem. Technol."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6624083","DOI":"10.1155\/2024\/6624083","article-title":"The Revalorization of Fishery By-Products: Types, Bioactive Compounds, and Food Applications","volume":"2024","year":"2024","journal-title":"Int. J. Food Sci."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Khiari, Z. (2024). Enzymes from Fishery and Aquaculture Waste: Research Trends in the Era of Artificial Intelligence and Circular Bio-Economy. Mar. Drugs, 22.","DOI":"10.3390\/md22090411"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"209","DOI":"10.1093\/fqsafe\/fyz024","article-title":"Fish and Fish Side Streams Are Valuable Sources of High-Value Components","volume":"3","author":"Mattila","year":"2019","journal-title":"Food Qual. Saf."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"28","DOI":"10.1039\/D5SU00527B","article-title":"Accessing Biominerals from By-Products Wasted by the Seafood Processing Industry","volume":"4","author":"Boudreau","year":"2026","journal-title":"RSC Sustain."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101037","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nexres.2025.101037","article-title":"Valorization of Fish Wastes and By-Products towards Green Circular Bio-Economy","volume":"2","author":"Rout","year":"2025","journal-title":"Next Res."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, Y., and Fan, H. (2026). Production, Functionality, Bioactivity, and Application of Fish Protein Hydrolysates and Peptides. Advances in Food and Nutrition Research, Academic Press Inc.","DOI":"10.1016\/bs.afnr.2025.10.001"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Caruso, G., Floris, R., Serangeli, C., and Di Paola, L. (2020). Fishery Wastes as a Yet Undiscovered Treasure from the Sea: Biomolecules Sources, Extraction Methods and Valorization. Mar. Drugs, 18.","DOI":"10.3390\/md18120622"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"319","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fbp.2025.10.004","article-title":"Extraction and Industrial Valorization of Collagen, Gelatin, and Hydroxyapatite from Freshwater Fish Scales: A Review","volume":"154","author":"Patwary","year":"2025","journal-title":"Food Bioprod. Process."},{"key":"ref_29","first-page":"220034","article-title":"Fatty Acid Composition and Nutritional Analysis of Waste Crude Fish Oil Obtained by Optimized Milder Extraction Methods","volume":"28","author":"Zheng","year":"2023","journal-title":"Environ. Eng. Res."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"529","DOI":"10.1007\/s11745-005-1414-0","article-title":"Fatty Acid Composition of Wild and Farmed Atlantic Salmon (Salmon salar) and Rainbow Trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss)","volume":"40","author":"Blanchet","year":"2005","journal-title":"Lipids"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"47","DOI":"10.1016\/bs.afnr.2016.06.004","article-title":"Enzymes from Seafood Processing Waste and Their Applications in Seafood Processing","volume":"Volume 78","author":"Venugopal","year":"2016","journal-title":"Advances in Food and Nutrition Research"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104815","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jece.2020.104815","article-title":"Thermal Conversion of Fish Bones into Fertilizers and Biostimulants for Plant Growth-A Low Tech Valorization Process for the Development of Circular Economy in Least Developed Countries","volume":"9","author":"Carella","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Environ. Chem. Eng."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103126","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fochx.2025.103126","article-title":"Improving Calcium Bioavailability from Fish Bone Waste: The Role of Sodium Hydroxide in Bio-calcium Extraction from Tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) Bones","volume":"31","author":"Senphan","year":"2025","journal-title":"Food Chem. X"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2453","DOI":"10.1007\/s13197-020-04837-0","article-title":"Sulfated Polysaccharides and Its Commercial Applications in Food Industries\u2014A Review","volume":"58","author":"Muthukumar","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Food Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e70673","DOI":"10.1002\/fsn3.70673","article-title":"Expanding the PH-Shift Technique for Sequential Extraction of Intact Proteins and Sulfated Polysaccharide From Fish Heads: A Novel Biorefinery Approach","volume":"13","author":"Naghdi","year":"2025","journal-title":"Food Sci. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sivaranjani, S., Puja, N., Rout, R.K., Joshi, T.J., Singh, S.M., Indumathi, M., and Kumar, T.D. (2024). Strategies to Recover Protein and Lipids from Fish Processing By-Products. Fish Waste to Valuable Products, Springer Nature.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-981-99-8593-7_5"},{"key":"ref_37","first-page":"109","article-title":"Chapter 6: Fish Waste","volume":"Volume 90","author":"Vicente","year":"2025","journal-title":"Green Chemistry Series: Blue Biorefineries and Sustainable Marine Industries"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Saini, R.K., Prasad, P., Shang, X., and Keum, Y.S. (2021). Advances in Lipid Extraction Methods\u2014A Review. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 22.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms222413643"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Alfio, V.G., Manzo, C., and Micillo, R. (2021). From Fish Waste to Value: An Overview of the Sustainable Recovery of Omega-3 for Food Supplements. Molecules, 26.","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules26041002"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"89","DOI":"10.1039\/D5FB00236B","article-title":"Valorization of Side Streams to Enhance Seafood Sustainability","volume":"4","author":"Advaitha","year":"2026","journal-title":"Sustain. Food Technol."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111482","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cclet.2025.111482","article-title":"Marine Bioactive Compounds: Sustainable Sources, Green Extraction, and Healthcare Applications","volume":"37","author":"Favas","year":"2025","journal-title":"Chin. Chem. Lett."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"166","DOI":"10.1007\/s10924-019-01594-w","article-title":"Fish Scale Collagen Preparation, Characterization and Its Application in Wound Healing","volume":"28","author":"Shalaby","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Polym. Environ."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"152","DOI":"10.51304\/baer.2021.5.1.152","article-title":"Some Physical, Chemical and Sensory Properties of Fish Oil Extracted from Fish Wastes by Physical and Chemical Methods","volume":"5","author":"Salih","year":"2021","journal-title":"Biol. Appl. Environ. Res."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"334","DOI":"10.37256\/fse.4220233388","article-title":"Valorizing Shrimp Shell as a Source of Chitin with Crude Enzymes from Germinated Winter Wheat and Buckwheat","volume":"4","author":"Ng","year":"2023","journal-title":"Food Sci. Eng."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100485","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jsamd.2022.100485","article-title":"Van Valorization of Fish and Shrimp Wastes to Nano-Hydroxyapatite\/Chitosan Biocomposite for Wastewater Treatment","volume":"7","author":"Trung","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Sci. Adv. Mater. Devices"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100657","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijgfs.2022.100657","article-title":"Development of Added-Value Culinary Ingredients from Fish Waste: Fish Bones and Fish Scales","volume":"31","author":"Boronat","year":"2023","journal-title":"Int. J. Gastron. Food Sci."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e20190486","DOI":"10.1590\/1980-5373-mr-2019-0486","article-title":"Fish Bone as a Source of Raw Material for Synthesis of Calcium Phosphate","volume":"22","year":"2019","journal-title":"Mater. Res."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"528","DOI":"10.1016\/j.supflu.2017.11.027","article-title":"Supercritical Fluid Extraction of Fish Oil from Common Carp (Cyprinus carpio L.) Tissues","volume":"133","author":"Kuvendziev","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Supercrit. Fluids"},{"key":"ref_49","first-page":"67","article-title":"Fatty Acid Composition and Stability of Extracted Mackerel Muscle Oil and Oil-Polyethylene Glycol Particles Formed by Gas Saturated Solution Process","volume":"17","author":"Asaduzzaman","year":"2014","journal-title":"Fish. Aquat. Sci."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4621","DOI":"10.1021\/jf5059396","article-title":"Significant Enrichment of Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids (PUFAs) in the Lipids Extracted by Supercritical CO2 from the Livers of Australian Rock Lobsters (Jasus edwardsii)","volume":"63","author":"Nguyen","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Agric. Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"81","DOI":"10.1300\/J030v10n03_08","article-title":"Astaxanthin Extraction from Crawfish Shells by Supercritical CO2 with Ethanol as Cosolvent","volume":"10","author":"Charest","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Aquat. Food Prod. Technol."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100339","DOI":"10.1016\/j.afres.2023.100339","article-title":"Emergent Technologies to Improve Protein Extraction from Fish and Seafood By-Products: An Overview","volume":"3","author":"Ganjeh","year":"2023","journal-title":"Appl. Food Res."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e12990","DOI":"10.1111\/jfpe.12990","article-title":"Impact of Pretreatment-Assisted Enzymatic Extraction on Recovery, Physicochemical and Rheological Properties of Oil from Labeo Rohita Head","volume":"42","author":"Bruno","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Food Process Eng."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"849","DOI":"10.1007\/s12562-013-0648-z","article-title":"Application of Ultrasonic Treatment to Extraction of Collagen from the Skins of Sea Bass Lateolabrax Japonicus","volume":"79","author":"Kim","year":"2013","journal-title":"Fish. Sci."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Al Khawli, F., Pateiro, M., Dom\u00ednguez, R., Lorenzo, J.M., Gull\u00f3n, P., Kousoulaki, K., Ferrer, E., Berrada, H., and Barba, F.J. (2019). Innovative Green Technologies of Intensification for Valorization of Seafood and Their By-Products. Mar. Drugs, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/md17120689"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2021","DOI":"10.1111\/ijfs.16297","article-title":"Valorisation of Food Processing Wastes Using PEF and Its Economic Advances\u2014Recent Update","volume":"58","author":"Velusamy","year":"2023","journal-title":"Int. J. Food Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16085","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.jafc.5c03394","article-title":"Review of Advanced Technologies and Circular Pathways for Food Waste Valorization","volume":"73","author":"Arvelli","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Agric. Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"131783","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biortech.2024.131783","article-title":"Valorization and Repurposing of Seafood Waste to Next-Generation Carbon Nanofertilizers","volume":"416","author":"Javed","year":"2025","journal-title":"Bioresour. Technol."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"142960","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodchem.2025.142960","article-title":"Cold Plasma: A Nonthermal Pretreatment, Extraction, and Solvent Activation Technique for Obtaining Bioactive Compounds from Agro-Food Industrial Biomass","volume":"472","author":"Gupta","year":"2025","journal-title":"Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"566","DOI":"10.1002\/cssc.201000341","article-title":"Subcritical Water as Reaction Environment: Fundamentals of Hydrothermal Biomass Transformation","volume":"4","author":"Nilges","year":"2011","journal-title":"ChemSusChem"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"126084","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biortech.2021.126084","article-title":"Hydrothermal Carbonization and Liquefaction: Differences, Progress, Challenges, and Opportunities","volume":"343","author":"Abaide","year":"2022","journal-title":"Bioresour. Technol."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Castro-Puyana, M., Herrero, M., Mendiola, J.A., and Ib\u00e1\u00f1ez, E. (2013). Subcritical Water Extraction of Bioactive Components from Algae. Functional Ingredients from Algae for Foods and Nutraceuticals, Elsevier Ltd.","DOI":"10.1533\/9780857098689.3.534"},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100096","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodp.2026.100096","article-title":"Green Extraction of Lipids: Exploring the Capabilities of Subcritical Fluid Technology","volume":"3","author":"Rasheed","year":"2026","journal-title":"Food Phys."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cheng, Y., Xue, F., Yu, S., Du, S., and Yang, Y. (2021). Subcritical Water Extraction of Natural Products. Molecules, 26.","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules26134004"},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1090","DOI":"10.1021\/bp9900920","article-title":"Production of Organic Acids and Amino Acids from Fish Meat by Sub-Critical Water Hydrolysis","volume":"15","author":"Yoshida","year":"1999","journal-title":"Biotechnol. Prog."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rivas-Vela, C.I., Amaya-Llano, S.L., Casta\u00f1o-Tostado, E., and Castillo-Herrera, G.A. (2021). Protein Hydrolysis by Subcritical Water: A New Perspective on Obtaining Bioactive Peptides. Molecules, 26.","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules26216655"},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104406","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jece.2020.104406","article-title":"An Overview of Subcritical and Supercritical Water Treatment of Different Biomasses for Protein and Amino Acids Production and Recovery","volume":"8","author":"Buller","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Environ. Chem. Eng."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ahmad, F., Doddapaneni, T.R.K.C., Toor, S.S., and Kikas, T. (2025). Reaction Mechanism and Kinetics of Hydrothermal Liquefaction at Sub- and Supercritical Conditions: A Review. Biomass, 5.","DOI":"10.3390\/biomass5010009"},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"143","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bej.2003.08.002","article-title":"Hydrolysis of Disaccharides Containing Glucose Residue in Subcritical Water","volume":"18","author":"Oomori","year":"2004","journal-title":"Biochem. Eng. J."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1321","DOI":"10.1021\/bp060086l","article-title":"Hydrolysis Kinetics of Trisaccharides Consisting of Glucose, Galactose, and Fructose Residues in Subcritical Water","volume":"22","author":"Khajavi","year":"2006","journal-title":"Biotechnol. Prog."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108560","DOI":"10.1016\/j.carres.2022.108560","article-title":"Subcritical Water Hydrolysis of N-Acetyl-D-Glucosamine: Hydrolysis Mechanism, Reaction Pathways and Optimization for Selective Production of 5-HMF and Levulinic Acid","volume":"516","author":"Kulkarni","year":"2022","journal-title":"Carbohydr. Res."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"254","DOI":"10.1016\/j.supflu.2018.01.029","article-title":"Hydrolysis Kinetics and Mechanism of Chitin in Subcritical Water","volume":"135","author":"Yang","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Supercrit. Fluids"},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5885","DOI":"10.1021\/ie010439f","article-title":"Production of Valuable Materials by Hydrothermal Treatment of Shrimp Shells","volume":"40","author":"Quitain","year":"2001","journal-title":"Ind. Eng. Chem. Res."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115548","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jenvman.2022.115548","article-title":"Subcritical Water Extraction of Bioactive Phenolic Compounds from Distillery Stillage","volume":"318","author":"Mikucka","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Environ. Manag."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"701","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1745-4530.2008.00297.x","article-title":"Isolation of Caffeine from Tea Waste Using Subcritical Water Extraction","volume":"33","author":"Shalmashi","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Food Process Eng."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113031","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rser.2022.113031","article-title":"Reactor for Biomass Conversion and Waste Treatment in Supercritical Water: A Review","volume":"171","author":"Chen","year":"2023","journal-title":"Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"611","DOI":"10.18331\/BRJ2017.4.2.6","article-title":"Applications of Subcritical and Supercritical Water Conditions for Extraction, Hydrolysis, Gasification, and Carbonization of Biomass: A Critical Review","volume":"4","author":"Brown","year":"2017","journal-title":"Biofuel Res. J."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"135925","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodchem.2023.135925","article-title":"Production of Small Peptides and Low Molecular Weight Amino Acids by Subcritical Water from Fish Meal: Effect of Pressurization Agent","volume":"418","author":"Barea","year":"2023","journal-title":"Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"793","DOI":"10.1007\/s13197-013-1107-7","article-title":"Recovery of Functional Materials with Thermally Stable Antioxidative Properties in Squid Muscle Hydrolyzates by Subcritical Water","volume":"52","author":"Asaduzzaman","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Food Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105135","DOI":"10.1016\/j.supflu.2020.105135","article-title":"Valorization of Blue Mussel for the Recovery of Free Amino Acids Rich Products by Subcritical Water Hydrolysis","volume":"169","author":"Jeong","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Supercrit. Fluids"},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, Y., Tu, D., Shen, Q., and Dai, Z. (2019). Fish Scale Valorization by Hydrothermal Pretreatment Followed by Enzymatic Hydrolysis for Gelatin Hydrolysate Production. Molecules, 24.","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules24162998"},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5675","DOI":"10.1021\/ie0513806","article-title":"Squid Oil and Fat Production from Squid Wastes Using Subcritical Water Hydrolysis: Free Fatty Acids and Transesterification","volume":"45","author":"Tavakoli","year":"2006","journal-title":"Ind. Eng. Chem. Res."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105970","DOI":"10.1016\/j.supflu.2023.105970","article-title":"Characterization of Oil and Amino Acids Obtained from Yellow Corvina By-Products Using Subcritical and Supercritical Fluids","volume":"199","author":"Haque","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Supercrit. Fluids"},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"132949","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodchem.2022.132949","article-title":"Extraction of Edible Oils and Amino Acids from Eel By-Products Using Clean Compressed Solvents: An Approach of Complete Valorization","volume":"388","author":"Park","year":"2022","journal-title":"Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104943","DOI":"10.1016\/j.supflu.2020.104943","article-title":"Supercritical CO2 and Subcritical Water Technologies for the Production of Bioactive Extracts from Sardine (Sardina pilchardus) Waste","volume":"164","author":"Melgosa","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Supercrit. Fluids"},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"203","DOI":"10.1080\/08957959.2015.1023197","article-title":"Degradation of Fish Gelatin Using Hot-Compressed Water and the Properties of the Degradation Products","volume":"35","author":"Ueno","year":"2015","journal-title":"High Press. Res."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1290","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijbiomac.2019.10.104","article-title":"Characterization of Pepsin-Solubilised Collagen Recovered from Mackerel (Scomber japonicus) Bone and Skin Using Subcritical Water Hydrolysis","volume":"148","author":"Asaduzzaman","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Biol. Macromol."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"43053","DOI":"10.1039\/D5RA04857E","article-title":"Biomass-Derived Hydrochar and Activated Carbon in Pharmaceutical Pollution Mitigation: A Comprehensive Overview","volume":"15","author":"Vu","year":"2025","journal-title":"RSC Adv."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105340","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envint.2019.105340","article-title":"Waste Shrimp Shell-Derived Hydrochar as an Emergent Material for Methyl Orange Removal in Aqueous Solutions","volume":"134","author":"He","year":"2020","journal-title":"Environ. Int."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"563","DOI":"10.1007\/s13399-018-0323-9","article-title":"Optimization of the Conventional Hydrothermal Carbonization to Produce Hydrochar from Fish Waste","volume":"8","author":"Kannan","year":"2018","journal-title":"Biomass Convers. Biorefin."},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"125223","DOI":"10.1063\/5.0243587","article-title":"Preparation of Biocrude Based on Fish Proteins and Lipids as Feedstock by Subcritical Hydrothermal Liquefaction","volume":"14","author":"Qin","year":"2024","journal-title":"AIP Adv."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"022021","DOI":"10.1088\/1755-1315\/332\/2\/022021","article-title":"Production of Bio-Oil via Hydrothermal Liquefaction of Seafood Waste-Taking Zhoushan Coastal Anglerfish Waste as an Example","volume":"332","author":"Lou","year":"2019","journal-title":"IOP Conf. Ser. Earth Environ. Sci."},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3553","DOI":"10.1007\/s12649-019-00704-y","article-title":"Characterization of Bio-Crude Liquor and Bio-Oil Produced by Hydrothermal Carbonization of Seafood Waste","volume":"11","author":"Kannan","year":"2020","journal-title":"Waste Biomass Valorization"},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"175810","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2024.175810","article-title":"Valorization of Seafood Waste: A Review of Life Cycle Assessment Studies in Biorefinery Applications","volume":"952","author":"Yusoff","year":"2024","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105510","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biombioe.2020.105510","article-title":"Hydrothermal Liquefaction of Biomass to Fuels and Value-Added Chemicals: Products Applications and Challenges to Develop Large-Scale Operations","volume":"135","author":"Beims","year":"2020","journal-title":"Biomass Bioenergy"}],"container-title":["Marine Drugs"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1660-3397\/24\/9\/307\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,2]],"date-time":"2026-09-02T14:38:34Z","timestamp":1788359914000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1660-3397\/24\/9\/307"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,2]]},"references-count":95,"journal-issue":{"issue":"9","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9]]}},"alternative-id":["md24090307"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/md24090307","relation":{},"ISSN":["1660-3397"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1660-3397","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,2]]}}}