{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,10]],"date-time":"2026-07-10T02:17:16Z","timestamp":1783649836448,"version":"3.55.0"},"reference-count":216,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"7","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2010,6,28]],"date-time":"2010-06-28T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1277683200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/3.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Marine Drugs"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Two centuries after the discovery of chitin, it is widely accepted that this biopolymer is an important biomaterial in many aspects. Numerous studies on chitin have focused on its biomedical applications. In this review, various aspects of chitin research including sources, structure, biosynthesis, chitinolytic enzyme, chitin binding protein, genetic engineering approach to produce chitin, chitin and evolution, and a wide range of applications in bio- and nanotechnology will be dealt with.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/md8071988","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2010,6,29]],"date-time":"2010-06-29T11:17:05Z","timestamp":1277810225000},"page":"1988-2012","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":367,"title":["Chitin Research Revisited"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"8","author":[{"given":"Feisal","family":"Khoushab","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Biotechnology, Suranaree University of Technology, Nakhon Ratchasima, 30000, Thailand"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Montarop","family":"Yamabhai","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Biotechnology, Suranaree University of Technology, Nakhon Ratchasima, 30000, Thailand"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2010,6,28]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"Muzzarelli, RAA (1977). Chitin, Pergamon Press."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Joll\u00e8s, P, and Muzzarelli, RAA (1999). Chitin and Chitinases, Birkh\u00e4user Verlag.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-0348-8757-1"},{"key":"ref_3","unstructured":"Domard, A, Jeuniaux, C, Muzzarelli, RAA, and Roberts, G (1996). Advances in Chitin Sciences, Jacques Andr\u00e9 Publ."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Phillips, GO, and Williams, PA (2009). Handbook of Hydrocolloids, Woodhead Publishing Ltd.","DOI":"10.1533\/9781845695873"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"863","DOI":"10.1021\/j150376a001","article-title":"X-Ray diffraction studies of chitin, chitosan, and derevatives","volume":"40","author":"Clark","year":"1936","journal-title":"J. Phys. Chem"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1901","DOI":"10.1351\/pac197951091901","article-title":"Marine Ecology and natural products","volume":"51","author":"Herring","year":"1979","journal-title":"Pure Appl. Chem"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"222","DOI":"10.1128\/jb.74.2.222-224.1957","article-title":"Quantitative estimation of chitin in fungi","volume":"74","author":"Blumenthal","year":"1957","journal-title":"J. Bacteriol"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"317","DOI":"10.1007\/BF01923410","article-title":"Chitin in the epidermal cuticle of a vertebrate (Paralipophrys trigloides, Blenniidae, Teleostei)","volume":"49","author":"Wagner","year":"1993","journal-title":"Cell. Mol. Life Sci"},{"key":"ref_9","unstructured":"Struszczyk, MH (2006). Polish Chitin Society, Monograph XI, Polish Chitin Society."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"938","DOI":"10.1021\/ed067p938","article-title":"Chitin and chitosan, versatile polysaccharides from marine animals","volume":"67","author":"Mathur","year":"1990","journal-title":"J. Chem. Educ"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1100","DOI":"10.1021\/bm801251e","article-title":"Revisit of alpha-chitin crystal structure using high resolution X-ray diffraction data","volume":"10","author":"Sikorski","year":"2009","journal-title":"Biomacromolecules"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"375","DOI":"10.1007\/BF02703990","article-title":"Conformations in polysaccharides and complex carbohydrates","volume":"8","author":"Atkins","year":"1985","journal-title":"J. Biosci"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2465","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biortech.2006.09.002","article-title":"[beta]-Chitin from the pens of Loligo sp.: Extraction and characterization","volume":"98","author":"Lavall","year":"2007","journal-title":"Bioresour. Technol"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7606","DOI":"10.1021\/ma00104a015","article-title":"Molecular and crystal structure of a high-temperature polymorph of chitosan from electron diffraction data","volume":"27","author":"Mazeau","year":"2002","journal-title":"Macromolecules"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1370","DOI":"10.1016\/j.msec.2008.11.006","article-title":"Solid state characterization of [alpha]-chitin from Vanessa cardui Linnaeus wings","volume":"29","author":"Schiffman","year":"2009","journal-title":"Mater. Sci. Eng. C"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"597","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1469-185X.1973.tb01570.x","article-title":"The Chitin System","volume":"48","author":"Rudall","year":"1973","journal-title":"Biol. Rev"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"167","DOI":"10.1016\/0022-2836(78)90063-3","article-title":"The structure of [alpha]-chitin","volume":"120","author":"Minke","year":"1978","journal-title":"J. Mol. Biol"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"999","DOI":"10.1098\/rsif.2007.0220","article-title":"Natural origin biodegradable systems in tissue engineering and regenerative medicine: present status and some moving trends","volume":"4","author":"Mano","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. R. Soc. Interface"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"603","DOI":"10.1016\/j.progpolymsci.2006.06.001","article-title":"Chitin and chitosan: Properties and applications","volume":"31","author":"Rinaudo","year":"2006","journal-title":"Prog. Polym. Sci"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"505","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.mi.47.100193.002445","article-title":"Genetics and Molecular Biology of Chitin Synthesis in Fungi","volume":"47","author":"Bulawa","year":"1993","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Microb"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"367","DOI":"10.1007\/s00294-002-0318-7","article-title":"The genetic complexity of chitin synthesis in fungi","volume":"41","author":"Roncero","year":"2002","journal-title":"Curr. Genet"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1007\/s00360-005-0005-3","article-title":"Insect chitin synthases: a review","volume":"176","author":"Merzendorfer","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Comp. Physiol. B"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ibmb.2005.09.003","article-title":"Regulatory mechanisms of chitin biosynthesis and roles of chitin in peritrophic matrix formation in the midgut of adult Aedes aegypti","volume":"36","author":"Kato","year":"2006","journal-title":"Insect. Biochem. Mol. Biol"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"28","DOI":"10.1007\/s004380100513","article-title":"Nematode chitin synthases: gene structure, expression and function in Caenorhabditis elegans and the plant parasitic nematode Meloidogyne artiellia","volume":"266","author":"Veronico","year":"2001","journal-title":"Mol. Genet. Genomics"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"946","DOI":"10.1002\/ps.363","article-title":"Chitin synthesis and inhibition: a revisit","volume":"57","author":"Cohen","year":"2001","journal-title":"Pest Manag. Sci"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3999","DOI":"10.1016\/S0021-9258(18)62132-5","article-title":"Pathway of chitin synthesis and cellular localization of chitin synthetase in Mucor rouxii","volume":"246","author":"McMurrough","year":"1971","journal-title":"J. Biol. Chem"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"123","DOI":"10.1006\/viro.2002.1572","article-title":"Chitin Synthesis in Chlorovirus CVK2-Infected Chlorella Cells","volume":"302","author":"Kawasaki","year":"2002","journal-title":"Virology"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"781","DOI":"10.1038\/344781a0","article-title":"Symbiotic host-specificity of Rhizobium meliloti is determined by a sulphated and acylated glucosamine oligosaccharide signal","volume":"344","author":"Lerouge","year":"1990","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3498","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.92.8.3498","article-title":"Synthesis of \"Nod\"-like chitin oligosaccharides by the Xenopus developmental protein DG42","volume":"92","author":"Semino","year":"1995","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4548","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.93.10.4548","article-title":"Homologs of the Xenopus developmental gene DG42 are present in zebrafish and mouse and are involved in the synthesis of Nod-like chitin oligosaccharides during early embryogenesis","volume":"93","author":"Semino","year":"1996","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"673","DOI":"10.1006\/viro.1995.1525","article-title":"Identification and preliminary characterization of a chitinase gene in the Autographa californica nuclear polyhedrosis virus genome","volume":"212","author":"Hawtin","year":"1995","journal-title":"Virology"},{"key":"ref_32","first-page":"581","article-title":"Chitinase from Serratia marcescens BKM B-851","volume":"12","author":"Chigaleichik","year":"1976","journal-title":"Prikl. Biokhim. Mikrobiol"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19758","DOI":"10.1016\/S0021-9258(18)55057-2","article-title":"Chitinase is required for cell separation during growth of Saccharomyces cerevisiae","volume":"266","author":"Kuranda","year":"1991","journal-title":"J. Biol. Chem"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"296","DOI":"10.7164\/antibiotics.40.296","article-title":"Search for microbial insect growth regulators. II. Allosamidin, a novel insect chitinase inhibitor","volume":"40","author":"Sakuda","year":"1987","journal-title":"J. Antibiot. (Tokyo)"},{"key":"ref_35","first-page":"809","article-title":"Plant chitinases--regulation and function","volume":"8","author":"Kasprzewska","year":"2003","journal-title":"Cell. Mol. Biol. Lett"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"619","DOI":"10.1139\/g06-020","article-title":"Distribution, structure, organ-specific expression, and phylogenic analysis of the pathogenesis-related protein-3 chitinase gene family in rice (Oryza sativa L.)","volume":"49","author":"Nakazaki","year":"2006","journal-title":"Genome"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"959","DOI":"10.1534\/genetics.107.075846","article-title":"Evolution of mammalian chitinase(-like) members of family 18 glycosyl hydrolases","volume":"177","author":"Bussink","year":"2007","journal-title":"Genetics"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"270","DOI":"10.1016\/S0958-1669(98)80058-X","article-title":"The molecular biology of chitin digestion","volume":"9","author":"Chet","year":"1998","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Biotechnol"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"41","DOI":"10.1016\/0014-5793(94)01084-6","article-title":"A proposed structure for 'family 18' chitinases. A possible function for narbonin","volume":"354","author":"Coulson","year":"1994","journal-title":"FEBS Lett"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1084","DOI":"10.1271\/bbb.66.1084","article-title":"Functional analysis of the chitin-binding domain of family 19 chitinase from streptomyces griseus HUT6037: substrate-binding affinity and cis-dominant increase of antifungal function","volume":"66","author":"Itoh","year":"2002","journal-title":"Biosci. Biotechnol. Biochem"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"96","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-2148-7-96","article-title":"Chitinase family GH18: evolutionary insights from the genomic history of a diverse protein family","volume":"7","author":"Funkhouser","year":"2007","journal-title":"BMC Evol. Biol"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"927","DOI":"10.1095\/biolreprod50.4.927","article-title":"Purification and molecular cloning of bovine oviduct-specific glycoprotein","volume":"50","author":"Sendai","year":"1994","journal-title":"Biol. Reprod"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19415","DOI":"10.1074\/jbc.271.32.19415","article-title":"Isolation and sequence of a novel human chondrocyte protein related to mammalian members of the chitinase protein family","volume":"271","author":"Hu","year":"1996","journal-title":"J. Biol. Chem"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"25803","DOI":"10.1016\/S0021-9258(19)74461-5","article-title":"Human cartilage gp-39, a major secretory product of articular chondrocytes and synovial cells, is a mammalian member of a chitinase protein family","volume":"268","author":"Hakala","year":"1993","journal-title":"J. Biol. Chem"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"826","DOI":"10.1002\/1529-0131(200104)44:4<826::AID-ANR139>3.0.CO;2-U","article-title":"Regulation of YKL-40 production by human articular chondrocytes","volume":"44","author":"Johansen","year":"2001","journal-title":"Arthritis Rheum"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"46","DOI":"10.1006\/excr.1997.3764","article-title":"Induction and Expression of Human Cartilage Glycoprotein 39 in Rheumatoid Inflammatory and Peripheral Blood Monocyte-Derived Macrophages","volume":"237","author":"Kirkpatrick","year":"1997","journal-title":"Exp. Cell Res"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17497","DOI":"10.1074\/jbc.M010417200","article-title":"A Macrophage Protein, Ym1, Transiently Expressed during Inflammation Is a Novel Mammalian Lectin","volume":"276","author":"Chang","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Biol. Chem"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"41969","DOI":"10.1074\/jbc.M106223200","article-title":"Expression of the Ym2 Lectin-binding Protein Is Dependent on Interleukin (IL)-4 and IL-13 Signal Transduction","volume":"276","author":"Webb","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Biol. Chem"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1279","DOI":"10.1074\/jbc.275.2.1279","article-title":"Identification of a Novel Eosinophil Chemotactic Cytokine (ECF-L) as a Chitinase Family Protein","volume":"275","author":"Owhashi","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Biol. Chem"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1149","DOI":"10.1084\/jem.20081271","article-title":"Role of breast regression protein 39 (BRP-39)\/chitinase 3-like-1 in Th2 and IL-13-induced tissue responses and apoptosis","volume":"206","author":"Lee","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Exp. Med"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13076","DOI":"10.1074\/jbc.270.22.13076","article-title":"Identification of a 38-kDa Heparin-binding Glycoprotein (gp38k) in Differentiating Vascular Smooth Muscle Cells as a Member of a Group of Proteins Associated with Tissue Remodeling","volume":"270","author":"Shackelton","year":"1995","journal-title":"J. Biol. Chem"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1098","DOI":"10.1095\/biolreprod58.5.1098","article-title":"Characteristics of an oviductal glycoprotein and its potential role in the fertilization process","volume":"58","author":"Verhage","year":"1998","journal-title":"Biol. Reprod"},{"key":"ref_53","first-page":"172","article-title":"Studies on serum YKL-40 as a biomarker in diseases with inflammation, tissue remodelling, fibroses and cancer","volume":"53","author":"Johansen","year":"2006","journal-title":"Dan. Med. Bull"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2198","DOI":"10.1074\/jbc.270.5.2198","article-title":"Purification and Characterization of Human Chitotriosidase, a Novel Member of the Chitinase Family of Proteins","volume":"270","author":"Renkema","year":"1995","journal-title":"J. Biol. Chem"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6770","DOI":"10.1074\/jbc.M009886200","article-title":"Identification of a Novel Acidic Mammalian Chitinase Distinct from Chitotriosidase","volume":"276","author":"Boot","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Biol. Chem"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"26252","DOI":"10.1074\/jbc.270.44.26252","article-title":"Cloning of a cDNA encoding chitotriosidase, a human chitinase produced by macrophages","volume":"270","author":"Boot","year":"1995","journal-title":"J. Biol. Chem"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"63","DOI":"10.1016\/j.gene.2009.12.005","article-title":"Evolutionary and biochemical differences between human and monkey acidic mammalian chitinases","volume":"452","author":"Krykbaev","year":"2010","journal-title":"Gene"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"128","DOI":"10.1177\/117727190700200023","article-title":"Human chitinases and chitinase-like proteins as indicators for inflammation and cancer","volume":"2","author":"Kzhyshkowska","year":"2007","journal-title":"Biomark Insights"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"377","DOI":"10.1107\/S0907444901018972","article-title":"Structure of the D140N mutant of chitinase B from Serratia marcescens at 1.45 A resolution","volume":"58","author":"Kolstad","year":"2002","journal-title":"Acta Crystallogr. D Biol. Crystallogr"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbapap.2003.09.014","article-title":"Structure of the D142N mutant of the family 18 chitinase ChiB from Serratia marcescens and its complex with allosamidin","volume":"1696","author":"Houston","year":"2004","journal-title":"Biochim. Biophys. Acta"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5842","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.97.11.5842","article-title":"Structure of a two-domain chitotriosidase from Serratia marcescens at 1.9-A resolution","volume":"97","author":"Synstad","year":"2000","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"31","DOI":"10.1016\/S0304-4165(03)00029-1","article-title":"A single surface tryptophan in the chitin-binding domain from Bacillus circulans chitinase A1 plays a pivotal role in binding chitin and can be modified to create an elutable affinity tag","volume":"1621","author":"Ferrandon","year":"2003","journal-title":"Biochim. Biophys. Acta"},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"286","DOI":"10.1016\/j.abb.2004.03.017","article-title":"Mutation of active site residues in the chitin-binding domain ChBDChiA1 from chitinase A1 of Bacillus circulans alters substrate specificity: use of a green fluorescent protein binding assay","volume":"426","author":"Hardt","year":"2004","journal-title":"Arch Biochem. Biophys"},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1388","DOI":"10.1074\/jbc.M109726200","article-title":"Solution structure of the fibronectin type III domain from Bacillus circulans WL-12 chitinase A1","volume":"277","author":"Jee","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Biol. Chem"},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2283","DOI":"10.1271\/bbb.58.2283","article-title":"Site-directed mutagenesis of the Asp-197 and Asp-202 residues in chitinase A1 of Bacillus circulans WL-12","volume":"58","author":"Watanabe","year":"1994","journal-title":"Biosci. Biotechnol. Biochem"},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"237","DOI":"10.1042\/bj20030419","article-title":"Aromatic residues within the substrate-binding cleft of Bacillus circulans chitinase A1 are essential for hydrolysis of crystalline chitin","volume":"376","author":"Watanabe","year":"2003","journal-title":"Biochem. J"},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18567","DOI":"10.1016\/S0021-9258(17)46665-8","article-title":"Identification of glutamic acid 204 and aspartic acid 200 in chitinase A1 of Bacillus circulans WL-12 as essential residues for chitinase activity","volume":"268","author":"Watanabe","year":"1993","journal-title":"J. Biol. Chem"},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"491","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jsb.2008.03.008","article-title":"Crystal structures of Vibrio harveyi chitinase A complexed with chitooligosaccharides: implications for the catalytic mechanism","volume":"162","author":"Songsiriritthigul","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Struct. Biol"},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1151","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbagen.2007.03.012","article-title":"Mutations of Trp275 and Trp397 altered the binding selectivity of Vibrio carchariae chitinase A","volume":"1770","author":"Suginta","year":"2007","journal-title":"Biochim. Biophys. Acta"},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3376","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1742-4658.2005.04753.x","article-title":"Enzymatic properties of wild-type and active site mutants of chitinase A from Vibrio carchariae, as revealed by HPLC-MS","volume":"272","author":"Suginta","year":"2005","journal-title":"FEBS J"},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"221","DOI":"10.1271\/bbb.67.221","article-title":"Plant chitinase as a possible biocontrol agent for use instead of chemical fungicides","volume":"67","author":"Karasuda","year":"2003","journal-title":"Biosci. Biotechnol. Biochem"},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"241","DOI":"10.2323\/jgam.55.241","article-title":"Cloning and molecular characterization of chitinase from Bacillus licheniformis MS-3","volume":"55","author":"Mostafa","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Gen. Appl. Microbiol"},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"894","DOI":"10.1128\/AEM.69.2.894-900.2003","article-title":"Characterization of chitinase genes from an alkaliphilic actinomycete, Nocardiopsis prasina OPC-131","volume":"69","author":"Tsujibo","year":"2003","journal-title":"Appl. Environ. Microbiol"},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21","DOI":"10.1080\/07388550601168223","article-title":"Bacterial chitinases: properties and potential","volume":"27","author":"Bhattacharya","year":"2007","journal-title":"Crit. Rev. Biotechnol"},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"773","DOI":"10.1007\/s00253-005-0183-7","article-title":"Biotechnological aspects of chitinolytic enzymes: a review","volume":"71","author":"Dahiya","year":"2006","journal-title":"Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol"},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"878","DOI":"10.1002\/biot.200800027","article-title":"Mining marine shellfish wastes for bioactive molecules: chitin and chitosan--Part B: applications","volume":"3","author":"Hayes","year":"2008","journal-title":"Biotechnol. J"},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"501","DOI":"10.1002\/biot.200800258","article-title":"Directed evolution of a Bacillus chitinase","volume":"4","author":"Songsiriritthigul","year":"2009","journal-title":"Biotechnol. J"},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"627","DOI":"10.1007\/s10295-003-0096-3","article-title":"Detection and characterization of chitinases and other chitin-modifying enzymes","volume":"30","author":"Howard","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Ind. Microbiol. Biotechnol"},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"473","DOI":"10.1016\/S0141-0229(00)00134-4","article-title":"Chitinolytic enzymes: an exploration","volume":"26","author":"Patil","year":"2000","journal-title":"Enzyme Microb. Technol"},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4096","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biortech.2010.01.036","article-title":"Expression and characterization of Bacillus licheniformis chitinase (ChiA), suitable for bioconversion of chitin waste","volume":"101","author":"Songsiriritthigul","year":"2010","journal-title":"Bioresour. Technol"},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1253","DOI":"10.1093\/oxfordjournals.jbchem.a021549","article-title":"Tachycitin, a small granular component in horseshoe crab hemocytes, is an antimicrobial protein with chitin-binding activity","volume":"120","author":"Kawabata","year":"1996","journal-title":"J. Biochem"},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"836","DOI":"10.1128\/EC.5.5.836-848.2006","article-title":"Unique posttranslational modifications of chitin-binding lectins of Entamoeba invadens cyst walls","volume":"5","author":"Chatterjee","year":"2006","journal-title":"Eukaryot. Cell"},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1100","DOI":"10.1126\/science.245.4922.1100","article-title":"A Chitin-Binding Lectin from Stinging Nettle Rhizomes with Antifungal Properties","volume":"245","author":"Broekaert","year":"1989","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"189","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ibmb.2010.02.001","article-title":"Structural cuticular proteins from arthropods: annotation, nomenclature, and sequence characteristics in the genomics era","volume":"40","author":"Willis","year":"2010","journal-title":"Insect. Biochem. Mol. Biol"},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"228","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ibmb.2010.01.010","article-title":"Identification of the chitin-binding proteins from the larval proteins of silkworm, Bombyx mori","volume":"40","author":"Tang","year":"2010","journal-title":"Insect. Biochem. Mol. Biol"},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"214","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ibmb.2010.01.011","article-title":"Genes encoding proteins with peritrophin A-type chitin-binding domains in Tribolium castaneum are grouped into three distinct families based on phylogeny, expression and function","volume":"40","author":"Jasrapuria","year":"2010","journal-title":"Insect. Biochem. Mol. Biol"},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2883","DOI":"10.1128\/AEM.67.7.2883-2894.2001","article-title":"Antifungal Proteins","volume":"67","author":"Selitrennikoff","year":"2001","journal-title":"Appl. Environ. Microbiol"},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"529","DOI":"10.1016\/S1074-5521(00)00136-8","article-title":"Structural basis for chitin recognition by defense proteins: GlcNAc residues are bound in a multivalent fashion by extended binding sites in hevein domains","volume":"7","author":"Asensio","year":"2000","journal-title":"Chem. Biol"},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7421","DOI":"10.1128\/JB.181.24.7421-7429.1999","article-title":"Characterization of a novel, antifungal, chitin-binding protein from Streptomyces tendae Tu901 that interferes with growth polarity","volume":"181","author":"Bormann","year":"1999","journal-title":"J. Bacteriol"},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"475","DOI":"10.1016\/S0305-0491(99)00143-1","article-title":"Purification and characterization of chitin-binding proteins from the hemolymph of sweet potato hornworm, Agrius convolvuli","volume":"124","author":"Chae","year":"1999","journal-title":"Comp. Biochem. Physiol. B Biochem. Mol. Biol"},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1187","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00028991","article-title":"Cloning and characterization of a cDNA encoding an antimicrobial chitin-binding protein from amaranth, Amaranthus caudatus","volume":"22","author":"David","year":"1993","journal-title":"Plant Mol. Biol"},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"123","DOI":"10.1016\/S0014-5793(00)01834-2","article-title":"Characteristics and antifungal activity of a chitin binding protein from Ginkgo biloba","volume":"478","author":"Huang","year":"2000","journal-title":"FEBS Lett"},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1291","DOI":"10.1099\/00221287-144-5-1291","article-title":"The Streptomyces reticuli alpha-chitin-binding protein CHB2 and its gene","volume":"144","author":"Kolbe","year":"1998","journal-title":"Microbiology"},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1577","DOI":"10.1016\/S0965-1748(02)00079-6","article-title":"A structural model of the chitin-binding domain of cuticle proteins","volume":"32","author":"Hamodrakas","year":"2002","journal-title":"Insect. Biochem. Mol. Biol"},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"600","DOI":"10.1093\/icb\/39.3.600","article-title":"Cuticular Proteins in Insects and Crustaceans","volume":"39","author":"Willis","year":"1999","journal-title":"Am. Zool"},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"228","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tibtech.2008.02.004","article-title":"Towards new enzymes for biofuels: lessons from chitinase research","volume":"26","author":"Eijsink","year":"2008","journal-title":"Trends Biotechnol"},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"28492","DOI":"10.1074\/jbc.M504468200","article-title":"The non-catalytic chitin-binding protein CBP21 from Serratia marcescens is essential for chitin degradation","volume":"280","author":"Horn","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Biol. Chem"},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"536","DOI":"10.1016\/S0959-440X(00)00127-5","article-title":"Large-scale production of oligosaccharides using engineered bacteria","volume":"10","author":"Endo","year":"2000","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Struct. Biol"},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"311","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ymben.2005.05.004","article-title":"Genetic engineering of Escherichia coli for the production of NI,NII-diacetylchitobiose (chitinbiose) and its utilization as a primer for the synthesis of complex carbohydrates","volume":"7","author":"Cottaz","year":"2005","journal-title":"Metab. Eng"},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"35","DOI":"10.1016\/S0008-6215(97)00107-9","article-title":"Gram-scale synthesis of recombinant chitooligosaccharides in Escherichia coli","volume":"302","author":"Samain","year":"1997","journal-title":"Carbohydr. Res"},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.1016\/S0168-1656(99)00048-6","article-title":"Production of O-acetylated and sulfated chitooligosaccharides by recombinant Escherichia coli strains harboring different combinations of nod genes","volume":"72","author":"Samain","year":"1999","journal-title":"J. Biotechnol"},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"608","DOI":"10.1016\/S0959-440X(00)00255-4","article-title":"Proteins involved in the production and perception of oligosaccharides in relation to plant and animal development","volume":"11","author":"Schlaman","year":"2001","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Struct. Biol"},{"key":"ref_103","first-page":"485","article-title":"Cell surface oligosaccharides on Dictyostelium during development","volume":"99","author":"Ferguson","year":"1975","journal-title":"J. Cell Sci"},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"127","DOI":"10.1016\/S1044-5781(06)80022-8","article-title":"Oligosaccharides in vertebrate development","volume":"6","author":"Varki","year":"1995","journal-title":"Semin. Dev. Biol"},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7982","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.94.15.7982","article-title":"An important developmental role for oligosaccharides during early embryogenesis of cyprinid fish","volume":"94","author":"Bakkers","year":"1997","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"81","DOI":"10.1016\/0304-3940(96)12506-4","article-title":"The carbohydrate N-acetylglucosamine is involved in the guidance of neurites from chick ciliary ganglion neurons through the extracellular matrix of rat skeletal muscle fiber","volume":"207","author":"Iglesias","year":"1996","journal-title":"Neurosci. Lett"},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"435","DOI":"10.1016\/S0006-291X(03)00175-X","article-title":"O-GlcNAc: a regulatory post-translational modification","volume":"302","author":"Wells","year":"2003","journal-title":"Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun"},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"551","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sbi.2008.09.005","article-title":"Molecular mechanisms of O-GlcNAcylation","volume":"18","author":"Dorfmueller","year":"2008","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Struct. Biol"},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"315","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.biochem.66.1.315","article-title":"Dynamic O-linked glycosylation of nuclear and cytoskeletal proteins","volume":"66","author":"Hart","year":"1997","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Biochem"},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2238","DOI":"10.1016\/j.yexcr.2008.04.014","article-title":"O-GlcNAc modulation at Akt1 Ser473 correlates with apoptosis of murine pancreatic [beta] cells","volume":"314","author":"Kang","year":"2008","journal-title":"Exp. Cell Res"},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3535","DOI":"10.1002\/jnr.22170","article-title":"O-linked beta-N-acetylglucosaminylation in mouse embryonic neural precursor cells","volume":"87","author":"Yanagisawa","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Neurosci. Res"},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2134","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biocel.2009.03.008","article-title":"O-GlcNAc cycling: Implications for neurodegenerative disorders","volume":"41","author":"Lazarus","year":"2009","journal-title":"Int. J. Biochem. Cell Biol"},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.1242\/jcs.053678","article-title":"The intersections between O-GlcNAcylation and phosphorylation: implications for multiple signaling pathways","volume":"123","author":"Zeidan","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Cell Sci"},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"599","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbalip.2006.04.007","article-title":"Cell signaling, the essential role of O-GlcNAc!","volume":"1761","author":"Zachara","year":"2006","journal-title":"Biochim. Biophys. Acta"},{"key":"ref_115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"174","DOI":"10.1074\/jbc.M807431200","article-title":"In Vivo Modulation of O-GlcNAc Levels Regulates Hippocampal Synaptic Plasticity through Interplay with Phosphorylation","volume":"284","author":"Tallent","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Biol. Chem"},{"key":"ref_116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12","DOI":"10.2174\/157436210790226465","article-title":"The Role of the O-GlcNAc Modification in Regulating Eukaryotic Gene Expression","volume":"5","author":"Brimble","year":"2010","journal-title":"Curr. Signal Transd. Ther"},{"key":"ref_117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"161","DOI":"10.1016\/S0304-4165(99)00176-2","article-title":"O-GlcNAc and the control of gene expression","volume":"1473","author":"Comer","year":"1999","journal-title":"Biochim. Biophys. Acta"},{"key":"ref_118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1017","DOI":"10.1038\/nature05815","article-title":"Cycling of O-linked [beta]-N-acetylglucosamine on nucleocytoplasmic proteins","volume":"446","author":"Hart","year":"2007","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_119","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"218","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tcb.2004.03.005","article-title":"O-GlcNAc modification: a nutritional sensor that modulates proteasome function","volume":"14","author":"Zachara","year":"2004","journal-title":"Trends Cell Biol"},{"key":"ref_120","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"34777","DOI":"10.1074\/jbc.M109.026351","article-title":"O-GlcNAc protein modification in cancer cells increases in response to glucose deprivation through glycogen degradation","volume":"284","author":"Kang","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Biol. Chem"},{"key":"ref_121","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5204","DOI":"10.1074\/jbc.M109.077818","article-title":"Regulation of insulin receptor substrate 1 (IRS-1)\/AKT kinase-mediated insulin signaling by O-Linked beta-N-acetylglucosamine in 3T3-L1 adipocytes","volume":"285","author":"Whelan","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Biol. Chem"},{"key":"ref_122","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"381","DOI":"10.1093\/glycob\/6.4.381","article-title":"N-Acetylglucosamine-dependent nuclear import of neoglycoproteins","volume":"6","author":"Duverger","year":"1996","journal-title":"Glycobiology"},{"key":"ref_123","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"765","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biocel.2004.12.001","article-title":"O-GlcNAc glycosylation: a signal for the nuclear transport of cytosolic proteins?","volume":"37","author":"Guinez","year":"2005","journal-title":"Int. J. Biochem. Cell Biol"},{"key":"ref_124","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"49","DOI":"10.2174\/157436210790226492","article-title":"Protein O-GlcNAcylation: A Critical Regulator of the Cellular Response to Stress","volume":"5","author":"Chatham","year":"2010","journal-title":"Curr. Signal Transduction Ther"},{"key":"ref_125","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"41","DOI":"10.2174\/157436210790226500","article-title":"Immune Regulation by the Posttranslational Modification O-GlcNAc","volume":"5","author":"Pappa","year":"2010","journal-title":"Curr. Signal Transduction Ther"},{"key":"ref_126","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1482","DOI":"10.3390\/md8051482","article-title":"Production of Chitooligosaccharides and Their Potential Applications in Medicine","volume":"8","author":"Aam","year":"2010","journal-title":"Mar. Drugs"},{"key":"ref_127","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"292","DOI":"10.3390\/md8020292","article-title":"Chitins and chitosans as immunoadjuvants and non-allergenic drug carriers","volume":"8","author":"Muzzarelli","year":"2010","journal-title":"Mar. Drugs"},{"key":"ref_128","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"923","DOI":"10.1016\/S0192-0561(00)00055-2","article-title":"Nitric oxide production by high molecular weight water-soluble chitosan via nuclear factor-kappaB activation","volume":"22","author":"Jeong","year":"2000","journal-title":"Int. J. Immunopharmacol"},{"key":"ref_129","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"151","DOI":"10.1016\/S0144-8617(98)00015-0","article-title":"Chitin and chitosan activate complement via the alternative pathway","volume":"36","author":"Minami","year":"1998","journal-title":"Carbohydr. Polym"},{"key":"ref_130","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4624","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biomaterials.2004.11.040","article-title":"Chitin-based tubes for tissue engineering in the nervous system","volume":"26","author":"Freier","year":"2005","journal-title":"Biomaterials"},{"key":"ref_131","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"49","DOI":"10.1016\/S0278-2391(99)90632-8","article-title":"The effect of chitosan (poly-N-acetyl glucosamine) on lingual hemostasis in heparinized rabbits","volume":"57","author":"Klokkevold","year":"1999","journal-title":"J. Oral Maxillofac. Surg"},{"key":"ref_132","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"337","DOI":"10.1016\/S0144-8617(03)00076-6","article-title":"Effects of chitin and chitosan on blood coagulation","volume":"53","author":"Okamoto","year":"2003","journal-title":"Carbohydr. Polym"},{"key":"ref_133","first-page":"111","article-title":"Chitin Nanofibre Reinforced Thin Chitosan Films for Wound Healing Application","volume":"22","author":"Shelma","year":"2008","journal-title":"Trends Biomater. Artif. Organs"},{"key":"ref_134","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"165","DOI":"10.1016\/S0142-9612(00)00167-8","article-title":"Fabrication and characterization of a sponge-like asymmetric chitosan membrane as a wound dressing","volume":"22","author":"Mi","year":"2001","journal-title":"Biomaterials"},{"key":"ref_135","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4323","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biomaterials.2008.07.034","article-title":"Development of a chitosan-based wound dressing with improved hemostatic and antimicrobial properties","volume":"29","author":"Ong","year":"2008","journal-title":"Biomaterials"},{"key":"ref_136","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"393","DOI":"10.1128\/AAC.00760-08","article-title":"Chitosan acetate bandage as a topical antimicrobial dressing for infected burns","volume":"53","author":"Dai","year":"2009","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Agents Chemother"},{"key":"ref_137","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"134","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biomaterials.2006.09.017","article-title":"Rational design of hydrogels for tissue engineering: Impact of physical factors on cell behavior","volume":"28","author":"Brandl","year":"2007","journal-title":"Biomaterials"},{"key":"ref_138","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"159","DOI":"10.1016\/j.msec.2008.06.003","article-title":"A novel method for producing tissue engineering scaffolds from chitin, chitin-hydroxyapatite, and cellulose","volume":"29","author":"Tsioptsias","year":"2009","journal-title":"Mater. Sci. Eng. C"},{"key":"ref_139","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4337","DOI":"10.1016\/S0142-9612(03)00340-5","article-title":"Hydrogels for tissue engineering: scaffold design variables and applications","volume":"24","author":"Drury","year":"2003","journal-title":"Biomaterials"},{"key":"ref_140","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2339","DOI":"10.1016\/S0142-9612(03)00026-7","article-title":"Implantable applications of chitin and chitosan","volume":"24","author":"Khor","year":"2003","journal-title":"Biomaterials"},{"key":"ref_141","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"650","DOI":"10.1002\/micr.20686","article-title":"Chitooligosaccharides promote peripheral nerve regeneration in a rabbit common peroneal nerve crush injury model","volume":"29","author":"Gong","year":"2009","journal-title":"Microsurgery"},{"key":"ref_142","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"277","DOI":"10.1079\/BJN19940029","article-title":"Effect of chitin and chitosan on nutrient digestibility and plasma lipid concentrations in broiler chickens","volume":"72","author":"Razdan","year":"1994","journal-title":"Br. J. Nutr"},{"key":"ref_143","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Biliaderis, CG, and Izydorczyk, MS (2006). Functional Food Carbohydrates, Francis and Taylor.","DOI":"10.1201\/9781420003512"},{"key":"ref_144","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2753","DOI":"10.1093\/jn\/130.11.2753","article-title":"Cholesterol Reduction by Glucomannan and Chitosan Is Mediated by Changes in Cholesterol Absorption and Bile Acid and Fat Excretion in Rats","volume":"130","author":"Gallaher","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Nutr"},{"key":"ref_145","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"272","DOI":"10.1093\/jn\/130.2.272S","article-title":"Dietary Fiber and Energy Regulation","volume":"130","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Nutr"},{"key":"ref_146","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1439","DOI":"10.1271\/bbb.57.1439","article-title":"Hypocholesterolemic Effect of Chitosan in Adult Males","volume":"57","author":"Maezaki","year":"1993","journal-title":"Biosci. Biotech. Biochem"},{"key":"ref_147","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1073","DOI":"10.1016\/j.carbpol.2009.10.038","article-title":"Novel carboxymethyl chitin nanoparticles for cancer drug delivery applications","volume":"79","author":"Dev","year":"2010","journal-title":"Carbohydr. Polym"},{"key":"ref_148","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"179","DOI":"10.1248\/bpb.22.179","article-title":"Biodisposition characteristics of N-succinyl-chitosan and glycol- chitosan in normal and tumor-bearing mice","volume":"22","author":"Kamiyama","year":"1999","journal-title":"Biol. Pharm. Bull"},{"key":"ref_149","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8","DOI":"10.1007\/s10047-005-0313-0","article-title":"Chitosan hydrogel as a drug delivery carrier to control angiogenesis","volume":"9","author":"Ishihara","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Artif. Organs"},{"key":"ref_150","first-page":"338","article-title":"Study on preparation of the pH sensitive hydroxyethyl chitin\/poly (acrylic acid) hydrogel and its drug release property","volume":"23","author":"Zhao","year":"2006","journal-title":"Sheng Wu Yi Xue Gong Cheng Xue Za Zhi"},{"key":"ref_151","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"83","DOI":"10.1016\/S0169-409X(00)00123-X","article-title":"Polysaccharide colloidal particles as delivery systems for macromolecules","volume":"47","author":"Janes","year":"2001","journal-title":"Adv. Drug Deliv. Rev"},{"key":"ref_152","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1207","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biomaterials.2007.11.012","article-title":"Protein release kinetics for core-shell hybrid nanoparticles based on the layer-by-layer assembly of alginate and chitosan on liposomes","volume":"29","author":"Haidar","year":"2008","journal-title":"Biomaterials"},{"key":"ref_153","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"125","DOI":"10.1002\/(SICI)1097-4628(19970103)63:1<125::AID-APP13>3.0.CO;2-4","article-title":"Novel hydrophilic chitosan-polyethylene oxide nanoparticles as protein carriers","volume":"63","author":"Calvo","year":"1997","journal-title":"J. Appl. Polym. Sci"},{"key":"ref_154","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"413","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1015987516796","article-title":"A Novel Approach to the Oral Delivery of Micro- or Nanoparticles","volume":"6","author":"Bodmeier","year":"1989","journal-title":"Pharm. Res"},{"key":"ref_155","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"145","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jns.2005.03.012","article-title":"Oxidative stress, mitochondrial dysfunction and cellular stress response in Friedreich's ataxia","volume":"233","author":"Calabrese","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Neurol. Sci"},{"key":"ref_156","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"188","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jff.2009.01.008","article-title":"Production of chitin oligosaccharides with different molecular weights and their antioxidant effect in RAW 264.7 cells","volume":"1","author":"Ngo","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Funct. Foods"},{"key":"ref_157","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1884","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bmcl.2005.12.077","article-title":"Antioxidant activity of novel chitin derivative","volume":"16","author":"Je","year":"2006","journal-title":"Bioorg. Med. Chem. Lett"},{"key":"ref_158","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17","DOI":"10.1016\/j.carbpol.2003.05.002","article-title":"Free radical scavenging activities of differently deacetylated chitosans using an ESR spectrometer","volume":"55","author":"Park","year":"2004","journal-title":"Carbohydr. Polym"},{"key":"ref_159","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3448","DOI":"10.1021\/bm060373d","article-title":"Characterization of (Aminoethyl)chitin\/DNA Nanoparticle for Gene Delivery","volume":"7","author":"Je","year":"2006","journal-title":"Biomacromolecules"},{"key":"ref_160","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1699","DOI":"10.1016\/S0960-894X(01)00285-2","article-title":"Antioxidant activity of water-soluble chitosan derivatives","volume":"11","author":"Xie","year":"2001","journal-title":"Bioorg. Med. Chem. Lett"},{"key":"ref_161","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1087","DOI":"10.1016\/S0261-2194(03)00117-0","article-title":"Effects of chitosan and plant extracts on growth of Colletotrichum gloeosporioides, anthracnose levels and quality of papaya fruit","volume":"22","author":"Wilson","year":"2003","journal-title":"Crop. Prot"},{"key":"ref_162","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"239","DOI":"10.4315\/0362-028X-62.3.239","article-title":"Antibacterial activity of shrimp chitosan against Escherichia coli","volume":"62","author":"Tsai","year":"1999","journal-title":"J. Food Prot"},{"key":"ref_163","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"321","DOI":"10.1016\/S0141-0229(02)00130-8","article-title":"Production of antifungal compounds from chitin by Bacillus subtilis","volume":"31","author":"Shih","year":"2002","journal-title":"Enzyme Microb. Technol"},{"key":"ref_164","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"287","DOI":"10.1016\/j.carbpol.2007.08.012","article-title":"Antibacterial activity of chitosan solution against Xanthomonas pathogenic bacteria isolated from Euphorbia pulcherrima","volume":"72","author":"Li","year":"2008","journal-title":"Carbohydr. Polym"},{"key":"ref_165","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"769","DOI":"10.1016\/S0953-7562(09)80447-4","article-title":"Antifungal activity of chitosan on post-harvest pathogens: induction of morphological and cytological alterations in Rhizopus stolonifer","volume":"96","author":"Arul","year":"1992","journal-title":"Mycol. Res"},{"key":"ref_166","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1449","DOI":"10.1104\/pp.70.5.1449","article-title":"Effect of Chitosan on Membrane Permeability of Suspension-Cultured Glycine max and Phaseolus vulgaris Cells","volume":"70","author":"Young","year":"1982","journal-title":"Plant Physiol"},{"key":"ref_167","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1007548826495","article-title":"Cationic Polymer Based Gene Delivery Systems","volume":"17","author":"Demeester","year":"2000","journal-title":"Pharm. Res"},{"key":"ref_168","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"97","DOI":"10.1016\/S0168-3659(00)00298-4","article-title":"Galactosylated chitosan-graft-dextran as hepatocyte-targeting DNA carrier","volume":"69","author":"Park","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Controlled Release"},{"key":"ref_169","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"183","DOI":"10.1016\/S0168-3659(97)00252-6","article-title":"DNA-polycation nanospheres as non-viral gene delivery vehicles","volume":"53","author":"Leong","year":"1998","journal-title":"J. Controlled Release"},{"key":"ref_170","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1332","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1011981000671","article-title":"Chitosan-Based Vector\/DNA Complexes for Gene Delivery: Biophysical Characteristics and Transfection Ability","volume":"15","author":"Erbacher","year":"1998","journal-title":"Pharm. Res"},{"key":"ref_171","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"63","DOI":"10.1016\/S0141-8130(99)00064-1","article-title":"Antimicrobial films produced from chitosan","volume":"26","author":"Begin","year":"1999","journal-title":"Int. J. Biol. Macromol"},{"key":"ref_172","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"139","DOI":"10.1016\/S0168-1605(00)00407-4","article-title":"Inhibition of surface spoilage bacteria in processed meats by application of antimicrobial films prepared with chitosan","volume":"62","author":"Ouattara","year":"2000","journal-title":"Int. J. Food Microbiol"},{"key":"ref_173","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1173","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodchem.2008.11.047","article-title":"Perspectives for chitosan based antimicrobial films in food applications","volume":"114","author":"Dutta","year":"2009","journal-title":"Food Chem"},{"key":"ref_174","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1162","DOI":"10.1104\/pp.126.3.1162","article-title":"Binding site for chitin oligosaccharides in the soybean plasma membrane","volume":"126","author":"Day","year":"2001","journal-title":"Plant Physiol"},{"key":"ref_175","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"615","DOI":"10.2307\/3869804","article-title":"Rhizobium Lipooligosaccharides Rescue a Carrot Somatic Embryo Mutant","volume":"5","author":"Heidstra","year":"1993","journal-title":"Plant Cell"},{"key":"ref_176","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"643","DOI":"10.1104\/pp.117.2.643","article-title":"Desensitization of the perception system for chitin fragments in tomato cells","volume":"117","author":"Felix","year":"1998","journal-title":"Plant Physiol"},{"key":"ref_177","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"574","DOI":"10.1094\/MPMI-9-0574","article-title":"Cooperative action of lipo-chitin nodulation signals on the induction of the early nodulin, ENOD2, in soybean roots","volume":"9","author":"Minami","year":"1996","journal-title":"Mol. Plant Microbe Interact"},{"key":"ref_178","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"347","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1365-313X.1997.12020347.x","article-title":"Identification of a high-affinity binding protein for N-acetylchitooligosaccharide elicitor in the plasma membrane of suspension-cultured rice cells by affinity labeling","volume":"12","author":"Ito","year":"1997","journal-title":"Plant J"},{"key":"ref_179","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"121","DOI":"10.1078\/0176-1617-00231","article-title":"Identification of a high-affinity binding protein for N-acetylchitooligosaccharide elicitor in theplasma membrane from rice leaf and root cells","volume":"158","author":"Okada","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Plant Physiol"},{"key":"ref_180","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Koev, ST, Powers, MA, Park, JJ, Yi, H, Wu, L, Bentley, WE, Payne, GF, Rubloff, GW, and Ghodssi, R (2006, January 15\u201318). Chitosan as a functional interface between biology and microsystems.","DOI":"10.1109\/BMN.2006.330886"},{"key":"ref_181","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"402","DOI":"10.1109\/JMEMS.2008.916325","article-title":"Photolithographic Process for Integration of the Biopolymer Chitosan into Micro\/Nanostructures","volume":"17","author":"Cheng","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Microelectromech. Syst"},{"key":"ref_182","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"093902","DOI":"10.1063\/1.2709914","article-title":"Low temperature, low pressure nanoimprinting of chitosan as a biomaterial for bionanotechnology applications","volume":"90","author":"Park","year":"2007","journal-title":"Appl. Phys. Lett"},{"key":"ref_183","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"025606","DOI":"10.1088\/0957-4484\/21\/2\/025606","article-title":"Chitosan: a green carbon source for the synthesis of graphitic nanocarbon, tungsten carbide and graphitic nanocarbon\/tungsten carbide composites","volume":"21","author":"Wang","year":"2010","journal-title":"Nanotechnology"},{"key":"ref_184","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"657","DOI":"10.1021\/bm020127b","article-title":"Crab Shell Chitin Whisker Reinforced Natural Rubber Nanocomposites. 1. Processing and Swelling Behavior","volume":"4","author":"Gopalan","year":"2003","journal-title":"Biomacromolecules"},{"key":"ref_185","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3611","DOI":"10.1246\/bcsj.63.3611","article-title":"Comparison of the Electrochemical Properties of Electric Double-Layer Capacitors with an Aqueous Electrolyte and with a Nonaqueous Electrolyte","volume":"63","author":"Tanahashi","year":"1990","journal-title":"Bull. Chem. Soc. Jpn"},{"key":"ref_186","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"68","DOI":"10.1016\/j.elecom.2008.10.039","article-title":"An acidic cellulose-chitin hybrid gel as novel electrolyte for an electric double layer capacitor","volume":"11","author":"Yamazaki","year":"2009","journal-title":"Electrochem. Commun"},{"key":"ref_187","first-page":"2191","article-title":"Adsorption of Uranium by Chitin Phosphate and Chitosan Phosphate","volume":"45","author":"Sakaguchi","year":"1981","journal-title":"Agric. Biol. Chem"},{"key":"ref_188","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"243","DOI":"10.1590\/S1517-83822004000200013","article-title":"Heavy metal biosorption by chitin and chitosan isolated from Cunninghamella elegans (IFM 46109)","volume":"35","author":"Franco","year":"2004","journal-title":"Braz. J. Microbiol"},{"key":"ref_189","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"273","DOI":"10.1016\/S0168-1656(00)00379-5","article-title":"Bioadsorption of lead(II) from aqueous solution by fungal biomass of Aspergillus niger","volume":"87","author":"Jianlong","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Biotechnol"},{"key":"ref_190","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1256","DOI":"10.1016\/j.talanta.2008.05.025","article-title":"Synthesis of chitosan-based resins modified with tris(2-aminoethyl)amine moiety and its application to collection\/concentration and determination of trace mercury by inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectrometry","volume":"76","author":"Hakim","year":"2008","journal-title":"Talanta"},{"key":"ref_191","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"977","DOI":"10.1016\/j.talanta.2007.08.012","article-title":"Synthesis of cross-linked chitosan functionalized with threonine moiety and its application to on-line collection\/concentration and determination of Mo, V and Cu","volume":"74","author":"Hakim","year":"2008","journal-title":"Talanta"},{"key":"ref_192","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1927","DOI":"10.1007\/s00216-008-1931-1","article-title":"Synthesis of chitosan resin possessing a phenylarsonic acid moiety for collection\/concentration of uranium and its determination by ICP-AES","volume":"390","author":"Oshita","year":"2008","journal-title":"Anal. Bioanal. Chem"},{"key":"ref_193","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"51","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aca.2009.02.050","article-title":"Synthesis of novel chitosan resin possessing histidine moiety and its application to the determination of trace silver by ICP-AES coupled with triplet automated-pretreatment system","volume":"639","author":"Hosoba","year":"2009","journal-title":"Anal. Chim. Acta"},{"key":"ref_194","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"73","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aca.2007.01.066","article-title":"Synthesis of novel chitosan resin derivatized with serine diacetic acid moiety and its application to on-line collection\/concentration of trace elements and their determination using inductively coupled plasma-atomic emission spectrometry","volume":"588","author":"Hakim","year":"2007","journal-title":"Anal. Chim. Acta"},{"key":"ref_195","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15","DOI":"10.1016\/j.colsurfa.2003.12.031","article-title":"Copper sorption from diesel oil on chitin and chitosan polymers","volume":"237","year":"2004","journal-title":"Colloids Surf. A"},{"key":"ref_196","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"997","DOI":"10.1016\/j.procbio.2004.04.008","article-title":"Application of biosorption for the removal of organic pollutants: a review","volume":"40","author":"Aksu","year":"2005","journal-title":"Process Biochem"},{"key":"ref_197","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3743","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1004692329247","article-title":"Shape-memory materials and hybrid composites for smart systems: Part I Shape-memory materials","volume":"33","author":"Wei","year":"1998","journal-title":"J. Mater. Sci"},{"key":"ref_198","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"248","DOI":"10.1016\/j.colsurfb.2009.04.011","article-title":"Surface characteristics of chitin-based shape memory polyurethane elastomers","volume":"72","author":"Zia","year":"2009","journal-title":"Colloids Surf. B Biointerfaces"},{"key":"ref_199","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"93","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-2164-8-93","article-title":"Identification and characterization of insect-specific proteins by genome data analysis","volume":"8","author":"Zhang","year":"2007","journal-title":"BMC Genomics"},{"key":"ref_200","unstructured":"Ieropoulos, I, Melhuish, C, Greenman, J, Horsfield, I, and Hart, J (2004). CiteSeerX - Scientific Literature Digital Library and Search Engine, The Pennsylvania State University."},{"key":"ref_201","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7723","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0602578103","article-title":"Evidence for a clade composed of molluscs with serially repeated structures: monoplacophorans are related to chitons","volume":"103","author":"Giribet","year":"2006","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_202","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"596","DOI":"10.1016\/S1389-1723(00)80063-8","article-title":"Identification and characterization of Clostridium paraputrificum M-21, a chitinolytic, mesophilic and hydrogen-producing bacterium","volume":"89","author":"Evvyernie","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Biosci. Bioeng"},{"key":"ref_203","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"229","DOI":"10.1016\/j.femsle.2005.04.014","article-title":"Overexpression of a hydrogenase gene in Clostridium paraputrificum to enhance hydrogen gas production","volume":"246","author":"Morimoto","year":"2005","journal-title":"FEMS Microbiol. Lett"},{"key":"ref_204","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"297","DOI":"10.1023\/B:JMSM.0000015491.91918.64","article-title":"Effects of PVA sponge containing chitooligosaccharide in the early stage of wound healing","volume":"15","author":"You","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Mater. Sci. Mater. Med"},{"key":"ref_205","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"553","DOI":"10.1016\/S0924-8579(01)00434-4","article-title":"In vitro antimicrobial activity of a chitooligosaccharide mixture against Actinobacillus actinomycetemcomitans and Streptococcus mutans","volume":"18","author":"Choi","year":"2001","journal-title":"Int. J. Antimicrob. Agents"},{"key":"ref_206","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"901","DOI":"10.1016\/j.plaphy.2006.09.010","article-title":"Photon emissions from rice cells elicited by N-acetylchitooligosaccharide are generated through phospholipid signaling in close association with the production of reactive oxygen species","volume":"44","author":"Kageyama","year":"2006","journal-title":"Plant Physiol. Biochem"},{"key":"ref_207","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1864","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fct.2009.04.044","article-title":"Inhibitory effects of chitooligosaccharides on tumor growth and metastasis","volume":"47","author":"Shen","year":"2009","journal-title":"Food Chem. Toxicol"},{"key":"ref_208","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"259","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1349-7006.1990.tb02559.x","article-title":"Antimetastatic and growth-inhibitory effects of N-acetylchitohexaose in mice bearing Lewis lung carcinoma","volume":"81","author":"Tsukada","year":"1990","journal-title":"Jpn. J. Cancer Res"},{"key":"ref_209","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4386","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biortech.2007.08.035","article-title":"Reclamation of chitinous materials by bromelain for the preparation of antitumor and antifungal materials","volume":"99","author":"Wang","year":"2008","journal-title":"Bioresour. Technol"},{"key":"ref_210","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"190","DOI":"10.1007\/s101560050033","article-title":"HIV infection and oligosaccharides: a novel approach to preventing HIV infection and the onset of AIDS","volume":"5","author":"Mizuochi","year":"1999","journal-title":"J. Infect. Chemother"},{"key":"ref_211","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4388","DOI":"10.1016\/S0021-9258(18)99551-7","article-title":"The binding of oligosaccharides containing N-acetylglucosamine and N-acetylmuramic acid to lysozyme. The specificity of binding subsites","volume":"242","author":"Chipman","year":"1967","journal-title":"J. Biol. Chem"},{"key":"ref_212","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"749","DOI":"10.1126\/science.7221561","article-title":"Chitin: New facets of research","volume":"212","author":"Austin","year":"1981","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_213","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"871","DOI":"10.1002\/biot.200700197","article-title":"Mining marine shellfish wastes for bioactive molecules: chitin and chitosan--Part A: extraction methods","volume":"3","author":"Hayes","year":"2008","journal-title":"Biotechnol. J"},{"key":"ref_214","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"203","DOI":"10.1007\/s10126-005-0097-5","article-title":"Chitin and chitosan: functional biopolymers from marine crustaceans","volume":"8","author":"Kurita","year":"2006","journal-title":"Mar. Biotechnol. (NY)"},{"key":"ref_215","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"145","DOI":"10.1080\/10408690390826473","article-title":"Production, properties, and some new applications of chitin and its derivatives","volume":"43","author":"Synowiecki","year":"2003","journal-title":"Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr"},{"key":"ref_216","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"61","DOI":"10.1080\/10408690390826455","article-title":"Chitin--the undisputed biomolecule of great potential","volume":"43","author":"Tharanathan","year":"2003","journal-title":"Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr"}],"container-title":["Marine Drugs"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1660-3397\/8\/7\/1988\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T22:02:48Z","timestamp":1760220168000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1660-3397\/8\/7\/1988"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2010,6,28]]},"references-count":216,"journal-issue":{"issue":"7","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2010,7]]}},"alternative-id":["md8071988"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/md8071988","relation":{},"ISSN":["1660-3397"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1660-3397","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2010,6,28]]}}}