{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,20]],"date-time":"2026-09-20T17:01:12Z","timestamp":1789923672489,"version":"4.0.1"},"reference-count":21,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"5","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2019,5,24]],"date-time":"2019-05-24T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1558656000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Medicina"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Background and Objectives: Lipid-based self-nanoemulsifying drug delivery systems (SNEDDS) have resurged the eminence of nanoemulsions by modest adjustments and offer many valuable opportunities in drug delivery. Chlorpromazine, an antipsychotic agent with poor aqueous solubility\u2014with extensive first-pass metabolism\u2014can be a suitable candidate for the development of SNEDDS. The current study was designed to develop triglyceride-based SNEDDS of chlorpromazine to achieve improved solubility, stability, and oral bioavailability. Materials and Methods: Fifteen SNEDDS formulations of each short, medium, and long chain, triglycerides were synthesized and characterized to achieve optimized formulation. The optimized formulation was characterized for several in vitro and in vivo parameters. Results: Particle size, zeta potential, and drug loading of the optimized SNEDDS (LCT14) were found to be 178 \u00b1 16, \u221221.4, and 85.5%, respectively. Long chain triglyceride (LCT14) showed a 1.5-fold increased elimination half-life (p &lt; 0.01), up to 6-fold increased oral bioavailability, and 1.7-fold decreased plasma clearance rate (p &lt; 0.01) compared to a drug suspension. Conclusion: The findings suggest that SNEDDS based on long-chain triglycerides (LCT14) formulations seem to be a promising alternative for improving the oral bioavailability of chlorpromazine.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/medicina55050210","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2019,5,26]],"date-time":"2019-05-26T23:07:27Z","timestamp":1558912047000},"page":"210","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":117,"title":["Self-Nanoemulsifying Drug Delivery System (SNEDDS) for Improved Oral Bioavailability of Chlorpromazine: In Vitro and In Vivo Evaluation"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"55","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1431-736X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jeand","family":"Baloch","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Sulaiman Bin Abdullah Aba Al-Khail\u2014Centre for Interdisciplinary Research in Basic Science (SA-CIRBS), International Islamic University, Islamabad 44000, Pakistan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Muhammad Farhan","family":"Sohail","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Riphah Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences (RIPS), Lahore Campus, Riphah International University, Lahore 54770, Pakistan"},{"name":"Department of Pharmacy, Faculty of Biological Sciences, Quaid-i-Azam University, Islamabad 45320, Pakistan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Hafiz Shaib","family":"Sarwar","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Riphah Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences (RIPS), Lahore Campus, Riphah International University, Lahore 54770, Pakistan"},{"name":"Department of Pharmacy, Faculty of Biological Sciences, Quaid-i-Azam University, Islamabad 45320, Pakistan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Maria Hassan","family":"Kiani","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pharmacy, Faculty of Biological Sciences, Quaid-i-Azam University, Islamabad 45320, Pakistan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3282-1711","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Gul Majid","family":"Khan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pharmacy, Faculty of Biological Sciences, Quaid-i-Azam University, Islamabad 45320, Pakistan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sarwat","family":"Jahan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Animal Sciences, Quaid-i- Azam University, Islamabad 45320, Pakistan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Muhammad","family":"Rafay","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Forester, Range and Wild life management, College of Agriculture and Environmental Sciences, The Islamia University, Bahawalpur 63100, Pakistan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Muhammad Tausif","family":"Chaudhry","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Environmental Analytical Lab, NPSL, Pakistan Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (PCSIR), Islamabad 45710, Pakistan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Masoom","family":"Yasinzai","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Sulaiman Bin Abdullah Aba Al-Khail\u2014Centre for Interdisciplinary Research in Basic Science (SA-CIRBS), International Islamic University, Islamabad 44000, Pakistan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Gul","family":"Shahnaz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pharmacy, Faculty of Biological Sciences, Quaid-i-Azam University, Islamabad 45320, Pakistan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,5,24]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","first-page":"168","article-title":"Solid self microemulsifying drug deliviry system: A review","volume":"3","author":"Sanghai","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Drug Deliv. Ther."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"315","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ejps.2006.05.001","article-title":"Review of global regulations concerning biowaivers for immediate release solid oral dosage forms","volume":"29","author":"Gupta","year":"2006","journal-title":"Eur. J. Pharm. Sci."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"563","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00315316","article-title":"Pharmacokinetics of chlorpromazine and key metabolites","volume":"45","author":"Yeung","year":"1993","journal-title":"Eur. J. Clin. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"219","DOI":"10.1016\/j.molliq.2016.02.081","article-title":"Self-nanoemulsifying drug delivery system (SNEDDS) with enhanced solubilization of nystatin for treatment of oral candidiasis: Design, optimization, in vitro and in vivo evaluation","volume":"218","author":"Kassem","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Mol. Liq."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"396","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ajps.2015.04.006","article-title":"Self nano-emulsifying drug delivery system for Embelin: Design, characterization and in-vitro studies","volume":"10","author":"Parmar","year":"2015","journal-title":"Asian J. Pharm. Sci."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"618","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nano.2011.08.015","article-title":"Nanoemulsions as self-emulsified drug delivery carriers for enhanced permeability of the poorly water-soluble selective \u03b21-adrenoreceptor blocker Talinolol","volume":"8","author":"Ghai","year":"2012","journal-title":"Nanomed. Nanotechnol. Biol. Med."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nasr, A., Gardouh, A., and Ghorab, M. (2016). Novel solid self-nanoemulsifying drug delivery system (S-SNEDDS) for oral delivery of olmesartan medoxomil: Design, formulation, pharmacokinetic and bioavailability evaluation. Pharmaceutics, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/pharmaceutics8030020"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"151","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijpharm.2016.02.026","article-title":"Formulation and characterization of self-nanoemulsifying drug delivery systems containing monoacyl phosphatidylcholine","volume":"502","author":"Tran","year":"2016","journal-title":"Int. J. Pharm."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"91","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nantod.2017.06.008","article-title":"Evolution and clinical translation of drug delivery nanomaterials","volume":"15","author":"Hassan","year":"2017","journal-title":"Nano Today"},{"key":"ref_10","unstructured":"Mustafa Kiyani, M., Sohail, M.F., Shahnaz, G., Rehman, H., Akhtar, M.F., Nawaz, I., Mahmood, T., Manzoor, M., Bokhari, I., and Ali, S. (2019). Evaluation of Turmeric Nanoparticles as Anti-Gout Agent: Modernization of a Traditional Drug. Medicina, 55."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1057","DOI":"10.1211\/jpp.59.8.0002","article-title":"Solid lipid nanoparticles (SLN) as carriers for the topical delivery of econazole nitrate: In-vitro characterization, ex-vivo and in-vivo studies","volume":"59","author":"Sanna","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Pharm. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"145","DOI":"10.1016\/j.colsurfa.2011.09.048","article-title":"Self-nanoemulsifying drug delivery system for adefovir dipivoxil: Design, characterization, in vitro and ex vivo evaluation","volume":"392","author":"Gupta","year":"2011","journal-title":"Colloids Surf. Physicochem. Eng. Asp."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Singh, B., Garg, B., Kaur, R., Jain, A., Kumar, R., and Katare, O. (2016). Self-nanoemulsifying systems for oral bioavailability enhancement: Recent paradigms. Fabrication and Self-Assembly of Nanobiomaterial, Elsevier.","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-323-41533-0.00004-0"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"23909","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms151223909","article-title":"PLGA biodegradable nanoparticles containing perphenazine or chlorpromazine hydrochloride: Effect of formulation and release","volume":"15","author":"Halayqa","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. J. Mol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"504","DOI":"10.1021\/mp5005806","article-title":"Mechanism of enhanced oral absorption of morin by phospholipid complex based self-nanoemulsifying drug delivery system","volume":"12","author":"Zhang","year":"2015","journal-title":"Mol. Pharm."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"71","DOI":"10.2174\/1877912305666150616221856","article-title":"Self-Emulsifying Systems for Oral Bioavailability Enhancement","volume":"5","author":"Hussain","year":"2015","journal-title":"Recent Pat. Nanomed."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"171","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ejpb.2011.01.025","article-title":"Uptake of phenothiazines by the harvested chylomicrons ex vivo model: Influence of self-nanoemulsifying formulation design","volume":"79","author":"Shahnaz","year":"2011","journal-title":"Eur. J. Pharm. Biopharm."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6240","DOI":"10.1039\/C6TB01348A","article-title":"Folate grafted thiolated chitosan enveloped nanoliposomes with enhanced oral bioavailability and anticancer activity of docetaxel","volume":"4","author":"Sohail","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Mater. Chem. B"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"81","DOI":"10.1208\/s12249-019-1297-z","article-title":"Folate-Functionalized Thiomeric Nanoparticles for Enhanced Docetaxel Cytotoxicity and Improved Oral Bioavailability","volume":"20","author":"Sajjad","year":"2019","journal-title":"AAPS PharmSciTech"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13304","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-018-30749-3","article-title":"Polymeric nanocapsules embedded with ultra-small silver nanoclusters for synergistic pharmacology and improved oral delivery of Docetaxel","volume":"8","author":"Sohail","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"211","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijpharm.2016.09.024","article-title":"In vivo evaluation of lipid-based formulations for oral delivery of apomorphine and its diester prodrugs","volume":"513","author":"Borkar","year":"2016","journal-title":"Int. J. Pharm."}],"container-title":["Medicina"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1648-9144\/55\/5\/210\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T12:54:58Z","timestamp":1760187298000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1648-9144\/55\/5\/210"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2019,5,24]]},"references-count":21,"journal-issue":{"issue":"5","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,5]]}},"alternative-id":["medicina55050210"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/medicina55050210","relation":{},"ISSN":["1648-9144"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1648-9144","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2019,5,24]]}}}