{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,24]],"date-time":"2026-09-24T06:04:35Z","timestamp":1790229875448,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":118,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"5","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,5,7]],"date-time":"2023-05-07T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1683417600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Medicina"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Diabetic retinopathy is a form of diabetic microangiopathy, and vascular hyperpermeability in the macula leads to retinal thickening and concomitant reduction of visual acuity in diabetic macular edema (DME). In this review, we discuss multimodal fundus imaging, comparing the pathogenesis and interventions. Clinicians diagnose DME using two major criteria, clinically significant macular edema by fundus examination and center-involving diabetic macular edema using optical coherence tomography (OCT), to determine the appropriate treatment. In addition to fundus photography, fluorescein angiography (FA) is a classical modality to evaluate morphological and functional changes in retinal capillaries, e.g., microaneurysms, capillary nonperfusion, and fluorescein leakage. Recently, optical coherence tomography angiography (OCTA) has allowed us to evaluate the three-dimensional structure of the retinal vasculature and newly demonstrated that lamellar capillary nonperfusion in the deep layer is associated with retinal edema. The clinical application of OCT has accelerated our understanding of various neuronal damages in DME. Retinal thickness measured by OCT enables us to quantitatively assess therapeutic effects. Sectional OCT images depict the deformation of neural tissues, e.g., cystoid macular edema, serous retinal detachment, and sponge-like retinal swelling. The disorganization of retinal inner layers (DRIL) and foveal photoreceptor damage, biomarkers of neurodegeneration, are associated with visual impairment. Fundus autofluorescence derives from the retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) and its qualitative and quantitative changes suggest that the RPE damage contributes to the neuronal changes in DME. These clinical findings on multimodal imaging help to elucidate the pathology in the neurovascular units and lead to the next generation of clinical and translational research in DME.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/medicina59050896","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,5,8]],"date-time":"2023-05-08T04:04:48Z","timestamp":1683518688000},"page":"896","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":10,"title":["Pathological Neurovascular Unit Mapping onto Multimodal Imaging in Diabetic Macular Edema"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"59","author":[{"given":"Tomoaki","family":"Murakami","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, Kyoto University Graduate School of Medicine, Kyoto 606-8507, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kenji","family":"Ishihara","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, Kyoto University Graduate School of Medicine, Kyoto 606-8507, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Noriko","family":"Terada","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, Kyoto University Graduate School of Medicine, Kyoto 606-8507, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Keiichi","family":"Nishikawa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, Kyoto University Graduate School of Medicine, Kyoto 606-8507, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kentaro","family":"Kawai","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, Kyoto University Graduate School of Medicine, Kyoto 606-8507, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Akitaka","family":"Tsujikawa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, Kyoto University Graduate School of Medicine, Kyoto 606-8507, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,5,7]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"556","DOI":"10.2337\/dc11-1909","article-title":"Global prevalence and major risk factors of diabetic retinopathy","volume":"35","author":"Yau","year":"2012","journal-title":"Diabetes Care"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Early Treatment Diabetic Retinopathy Study Research Group (1985). 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