{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,20]],"date-time":"2026-09-20T03:25:29Z","timestamp":1789874729834,"version":"4.0.1"},"reference-count":57,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"9","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,9,7]],"date-time":"2023-09-07T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1694044800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Medicina"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Among available papers published on the given subject over the last century, various terms have been used as synonyms for one, now generally accepted\u2014osteoarthritis, in some countries called \u201cwear and tear\u201d or \u201coverload arthritis\u201d. The opsolent terms\u2014hypertrophic arthritis, degenerative arthritis, arthritis deformans and osteoarthrosis\u2014sought to highlight the dominant clinical signs of this ubiquitous, polymorph disease of the whole osteochondral unit, which by incidence and prevalence represents one of the leading chronic conditions that cause long-term pain and incapacity for work. Numerous in vitro and in vivo research resulted in broadened acknowledgments about osteoarthritis pathophysiology and pathology on both histological and cellular levels. However, the cause of osteoarthritis is still unknown and is currently the subject of a hypothesis. In this paper, we provide a review of recent findings on biological phenomena taking place in bone tissue during osteoarthritis to the extent useful for clinical practice. Choosing a proper radiological approach is a conditio sine qua non to the early diagnosis of this entity.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/medicina59091613","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,9,7]],"date-time":"2023-09-07T09:51:37Z","timestamp":1694080297000},"page":"1613","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":30,"title":["Bone Remodeling in Osteoarthritis\u2014Biological and Radiological Aspects"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"59","author":[{"given":"Luka","family":"Dudaric","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Croatia Poliklinika, Rijeka Radiology Unit, Vukovarska 7A, 51000 Rijeka, Croatia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2005-6402","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ivo","family":"Dumic-Cule","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Clinical Department of Diagnostic and Interventional Radiology, University Hospital Centre Zagreb, Kispaticeva 12, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia"},{"name":"Department of Nursing, University North, 104 Brigade 3, 42000 Varazdin, Croatia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9709-5450","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Eugen","family":"Divjak","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Diagnostic and Interventional Radiology, University Hospital Dubrava, Avenija Gojka Suska 6, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3211-9925","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Tomislav","family":"Cengic","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Orthopedics and Traumatology, University Hospital Centre Sestre Milosrdnice, Draskoviceva 19, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Boris","family":"Brkljacic","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Diagnostic and Interventional Radiology, University Hospital Dubrava, Avenija Gojka Suska 6, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia"},{"name":"School of Medicine, University of Zagreb, Salata 3, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8419-1534","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Gordana","family":"Ivanac","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Diagnostic and Interventional Radiology, University Hospital Dubrava, Avenija Gojka Suska 6, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia"},{"name":"School of Medicine, University of Zagreb, Salata 3, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,9,7]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"\u0110udari\u0107, L. (2014). Izra\u017eaj Osteoniduktivnih Proteina I Njihovih Inhibitora Tijekom Osteogeneze. [Ph.D. Thesis, Medicinski Fakultet Sveu\u010dili\u0161ta u Rijeci]."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"Marcus, R., Feldman, D., and Kelsey, J. (1996). Osteoporosis, Academic Press Inc."},{"key":"ref_3","first-page":"21","article-title":"Osnove biologije ko\u0161tanog tkiva","volume":"50","year":"2014","journal-title":"Med. Flum."},{"key":"ref_4","first-page":"482","article-title":"Pregradnja ko\u0161tanog sustava","volume":"51","author":"Bobinac","year":"2015","journal-title":"Med. Flum."},{"key":"ref_5","unstructured":"Becker, K.L. (2001). Principles and Practice of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Lippincott Williams & Wilkins."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"351","DOI":"10.1016\/S8756-3282(00)00331-8","article-title":"Exercise-induced bone gain is due to enlargement in bone size without a change in volumetric bone density: A peripheral quantitative computed tomography study of the upper arms of male tennis players","volume":"27","author":"Haapasalo","year":"2000","journal-title":"Bone"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2274","DOI":"10.1359\/jbmr.2002.17.12.2274","article-title":"The effect of mechanical loading on the size and shape of bone in pre-, peri-, and postpubertal girls: A study in tennis players","volume":"17","author":"Bass","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Bone Miner. Res."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1055","DOI":"10.1359\/jbmr.070329","article-title":"Construction of the femoral neck during growth determines its strength in old age","volume":"22","author":"Zebaze","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Bone Miner. Res."},{"key":"ref_9","first-page":"103","article-title":"Quantitative morphology of the subchondral plate of the tibial plateau","volume":"185","author":"Milz","year":"1994","journal-title":"J. Anat."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"81","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1469-7580.1998.19210081.x","article-title":"Thickness of the subchondral mineralised tissue zone (SMZ) in normal male and female and pathological human patellae","volume":"192","author":"Eckstein","year":"1998","journal-title":"J. Anat."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"866","DOI":"10.1302\/0301-620X.72B5.2211774","article-title":"The structure of the human subchondral plate","volume":"72","author":"Clark","year":"1990","journal-title":"J. Bone Jt. Surg."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"32","DOI":"10.1002\/jor.1100020106","article-title":"The apparent elastic modulus of the juxtarticular subchondral bone of the femoral head","volume":"2","author":"Brown","year":"1984","journal-title":"J. Orthop. Res."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1560","DOI":"10.1002\/art.1780341214","article-title":"Osteoarthritic changes in canine articular cartilage, subchondral bone, and synovium fifty-four months after transaction of the anterior cruciate ligament","volume":"34","author":"Brandt","year":"1991","journal-title":"Arthritis Rheum."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1460","DOI":"10.1002\/art.1780361019","article-title":"A longitudinal study of subchondral plate and trabecular bone in cruciate-deficient dogs with osteoarthritis followed up for 54 months","volume":"36","author":"Dedrick","year":"1993","journal-title":"Arthritis Rheum."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"665","DOI":"10.1038\/nrrheum.2012.130","article-title":"Bone remodelling in osteoarthritis","volume":"8","author":"Burr","year":"2012","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Rheumatol."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1650","DOI":"10.1002\/jbmr.39","article-title":"Similarities and discrepancies in subchondral bone structure in two differently induced canine models of osteoarthritis","volume":"25","author":"Intema","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Bone Miner. Res."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1076","DOI":"10.1172\/JCI121561","article-title":"Subchondral bone osteoclasts induce sensory innervation and osteoarthritis pain","volume":"129","author":"Zhu","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Clin. Investig."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-2474-9-20","article-title":"A role for subchondral bone changes in the process of osteoarthritis; a micro-CT study of two canine models","volume":"9","author":"Sniekers","year":"2008","journal-title":"BME Musculoskelet. Disord."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"R152","DOI":"10.1186\/ar3103","article-title":"Subchondral bone microstructural damage by increased remodeling aggravates experimental osteoarthritis preceded by osteoporosis","volume":"12","author":"Bellido","year":"2010","journal-title":"Arthritis Res. Ther."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3178","DOI":"10.1002\/art.10630","article-title":"Evidence for increased bone resorption in patients with progressive knee osteoarthritis: Longitudinal results from the Chingford study","volume":"46","author":"Bettica","year":"2002","journal-title":"Arthritis Rheum."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1150","DOI":"10.1016\/j.joca.2008.02.018","article-title":"Relationship between trabecular bone structure and articular cartilage morphology and relaxation times in early OA of the knee joint using parallel MRI at 3T","volume":"16","author":"Bolbos","year":"2008","journal-title":"Osteoarthr. Cartil."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"306","DOI":"10.1038\/ncprheum0505","article-title":"Bone, not cartilage, should be the major focus in osteoarthritis","volume":"3","author":"Mansell","year":"2007","journal-title":"Nat. Clin. Pract. Rheum."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"491","DOI":"10.1053\/joca.2002.0528","article-title":"Can altered production of interleukin-1\u03b2, interleukin-6, transforming growth factor-\u03b2, and prostaglandin E2 by isolated human subchondral osteoblasts identify two subgroups of osteoarthritic patients","volume":"10","author":"Massicotte","year":"2002","journal-title":"Osteoarthr. Cartil."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1152","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bone.2012.01.024","article-title":"Decreased bone tissue mineralization can partly explain subchondral sclerosis observed in osteoarthritis","volume":"50","author":"Cox","year":"2012","journal-title":"Bone"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1231","DOI":"10.1038\/nm.2452","article-title":"Evidence for osteocyte regulation of bone homeostasis through RANKL expression","volume":"17","author":"Nakashima","year":"2011","journal-title":"Nat. Med."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1115","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bone.2012.01.025","article-title":"Activation of resorption in fatigue-loaded bone involves both apoptosis and active pro-osteoclastogenic signaling by distinct osteocyte cell populations","volume":"50","author":"Kennedy","year":"2012","journal-title":"Bone"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"301","DOI":"10.1136\/ard.42.3.301","article-title":"Relationship of angiogenesis factor in synovial fluid to various joint diseases","volume":"42","author":"Brown","year":"1983","journal-title":"Ann. Rheum. Dis."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1347","DOI":"10.1002\/jor.20883","article-title":"In situ measurement of transport between subchondral bone and articular cartilage","volume":"27","author":"Pan","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Orthop. Res."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3831","DOI":"10.1002\/art.24069","article-title":"Increased hydraulic conductance of human articular cartilage and subchondral bone plate with progression of osteoarthritis","volume":"58","author":"Hwang","year":"2008","journal-title":"Arthritis Rheum."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"212","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bone.2011.11.030","article-title":"Elevated cross-talk between subchondral bone and cartilage in osteoarthritic joints","volume":"51","author":"Pan","year":"2012","journal-title":"Bone"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"632","DOI":"10.1359\/jbmr.1997.12.4.632","article-title":"Fractal properties of subchondral cancellous bone in severe osteoarthritis of the hip","volume":"12","author":"Fazzalari","year":"1997","journal-title":"J. Bone Miner. Res."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1299","DOI":"10.1093\/rheumatology\/35.12.1299","article-title":"The association between osteoarthritis and osteoporotic fracture: The Chingford study","volume":"35","author":"Arden","year":"1996","journal-title":"Br. J. Rheumatol."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1671","DOI":"10.1002\/art.1780361205","article-title":"Bone mineral density and knee osteoarthritis in elderly men and women. The Framingham Study","volume":"36","author":"Hannan","year":"1993","journal-title":"Arthritis Rheum."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20","DOI":"10.1007\/BF02555898","article-title":"Subchondral bone in osteoarthritis","volume":"49","author":"Grynpas","year":"1991","journal-title":"Calcif. Tissue Int."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1399","DOI":"10.1002\/jbmr.358","article-title":"Elevated Dickkopf-2 levels contribute to the abnormal phenotype of human osteoarthritic osteoblasts","volume":"26","author":"Chan","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Bone Miner. Res."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"945","DOI":"10.1038\/ng1614","article-title":"Dkk2 has a role in terminal osteoblast differentiation and mineralized matrix formation","volume":"37","author":"Li","year":"2005","journal-title":"Nat. Genet."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"323","DOI":"10.1053\/joca.1998.0181","article-title":"Bone remodeling in osteoarthritis: Subchondral and osteophytic responses","volume":"7","author":"Moskowitz","year":"1999","journal-title":"Osteoarthr. Cartil."},{"key":"ref_38","unstructured":"Moskowitz, R., Howell, D., Goldberg, V., and Mankin, H. (1992). Osteoarthritis, W.B. Saunders."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"99","DOI":"10.1016\/S1063-4584(97)80003-9","article-title":"Gene expression of type II collagens in chondro-osteophytes in experimental osteoarthritis","volume":"5","author":"Matyas","year":"1997","journal-title":"Osteoarthr. Cartil."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"263","DOI":"10.1016\/j.joca.2008.06.022","article-title":"The BMP antagonists follistatin and gremlin in normal and early osteoarthritic cartilage: An immunohistochemical study","volume":"17","author":"Tardif","year":"2009","journal-title":"Osteoarthr. Cartil."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"306","DOI":"10.1053\/joca.1998.0129","article-title":"Differential effects of local application of BMP-2 or TGF-beta 1 on both articular cartilage composition and osteophyte formation","volume":"6","author":"Glansbeek","year":"1998","journal-title":"Osteoarthr. Cartil."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.3109\/17453677909024083","article-title":"Osteoarthritis of the knee in the rabbit produced by immobilization. Attempts to achieve a reproducible model for studies on pathogenesis and therapy","volume":"50","author":"Michelsson","year":"1979","journal-title":"Acta Orthop. Scand."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1979","DOI":"10.1007\/s00264-014-2425-8","article-title":"Systemically available bone morphogenetic protein two and seven affect bone metabolism","volume":"38","author":"Brkljacic","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. Orthop."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2619","DOI":"10.1007\/s00264-018-4153-y","article-title":"Bone morphogenetic proteins in fracture repair","volume":"42","author":"Peric","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. Orthop."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"237","DOI":"10.1016\/j.joca.2006.11.006","article-title":"Osteophytes: Relevance and biology","volume":"15","year":"2007","journal-title":"Osteoarthr. Cartil."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"262","DOI":"10.1007\/s00264-003-0485-2","article-title":"The role of osteophytic growth in hip osteoarthritis","volume":"27","author":"Neuman","year":"2003","journal-title":"Int. Orthop."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"284","DOI":"10.1002\/1097-4644(20010501)81:2<284::AID-JCB1043>3.0.CO;2-D","article-title":"BMP-2 induction and TGF-beta 1 modulation of rat periosteal cell chondrogenesis","volume":"81","author":"Hanada","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Cell Biochem."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"123","DOI":"10.1016\/S0945-053X(01)00126-3","article-title":"Induction of periosteal callus formation by bone morphogenetic protein-2 employing adenovirusmediated gene delivery","volume":"20","author":"Uusitalo","year":"2001","journal-title":"Matrix Biol."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1195","DOI":"10.1002\/jbmr.5650090809","article-title":"Bone morphogenetic protein 2 stimulates osteogenesis but does not affect chondrogenesis in osteochondrogenic differentiation of periosteum-derived cells","volume":"9","author":"Iwasaki","year":"1994","journal-title":"J. Bone Miner. Res."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"84","DOI":"10.1002\/jcb.20546","article-title":"In vitro chondrogenesis of human synovium-derived mesenchymal stem cells: Optimal condition and comparison with bone marrowderived cells","volume":"97","author":"Shirasawa","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Cell Biochem."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2195","DOI":"10.1083\/jcb.110.6.2195","article-title":"Transforming growth factor-beta and the initiation of chondrogenesis and osteogenesis in the rat femur","volume":"110","author":"Joyce","year":"1990","journal-title":"J. Cell Biol."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"224","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biocel.2004.06.016","article-title":"Fundamental subchondral bone changes in spontaneous knee osteoarthritis","volume":"37","author":"Quasnichka","year":"2005","journal-title":"Int. J. Biochem. Cell Biol."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"234","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bone.2005.08.007","article-title":"Characterization of articular cartilage and subchondral bone changes in the rat anterior cruciate ligament transection and meniscectomized models of osteoarthritis","volume":"38","author":"Hayami","year":"2006","journal-title":"Bone"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105","DOI":"10.1016\/j.semarthrit.2012.03.009","article-title":"Magnetic resonance imaging of subchondral bone marrow lesions in association with osteoarthritis","volume":"42","author":"Xu","year":"2012","journal-title":"Semin. Arthritis Rheum."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"494","DOI":"10.1136\/ard.16.4.494","article-title":"Radiological assessment of osteo-arthrosis","volume":"16","author":"Kellgren","year":"1957","journal-title":"Ann. Rheum. Dis."},{"key":"ref_56","unstructured":"NICE (2022). Osteoarthritis in over 16s: Diagnosis and Management, National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE)."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19","DOI":"10.1007\/s40520-018-1077-8","article-title":"A new decision tree for diagnosis of osteoarthritis in primary care: International consensus of experts","volume":"31","author":"Maheu","year":"2019","journal-title":"Aging Clin. Exp. Res."}],"container-title":["Medicina"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1648-9144\/59\/9\/1613\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T20:46:28Z","timestamp":1760129188000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1648-9144\/59\/9\/1613"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,9,7]]},"references-count":57,"journal-issue":{"issue":"9","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,9]]}},"alternative-id":["medicina59091613"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/medicina59091613","relation":{},"ISSN":["1648-9144"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1648-9144","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,9,7]]}}}