{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,11,2]],"date-time":"2026-11-02T22:33:39Z","timestamp":1793658819028,"version":"4.5.1"},"reference-count":174,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"9","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,9,5]],"date-time":"2024-09-05T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1725494400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Melbourne Postdoctoral Fellowship (University of Melbourne)","id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/01ej9dk98","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"crossref"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Medicina"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Dry eye disease is a multifactorial condition characterised by tear film instability, hyperosmolarity and ocular surface inflammation. Understanding the epidemiology of dry eye disease and recognising both modifiable and non-modifiable risk factors can assist eye care practitioners in assessing, treating, and managing patients with the condition. This review considers current knowledge surrounding its incidence and prevalence, as well as associated demographic, systemic, ocular, and iatrogenic, and lifestyle-related modifiable risk factors. Population-based prevalence estimates vary according to the diagnostic criteria used to define dry eye disease, as well as severity and demographic characteristics of the population. Considering recent data and variable population demographics, conservative prevalence estimates suggest that 10\u201320% of the population over 40 years of age report moderate to severe symptoms and\/or seek treatment for dry eye disease. Individuals with specific non-modifiable demographic risk factors may be at increased risk of developing dry eye disease. Advanced age, female sex and East Asian ethnicity have been identified as key non-modifiable demographic features predisposing individuals to dry eye disease. Systemic conditions that have been associated with an increased risk of dry eye disease include migraine, Sj\u00f6gren syndrome, connective tissue disorders, mental health disorders, diabetes mellitus and androgen deficiency. Medications that may contribute to this risk include antidepressants, antihistamines, and hormone replacement therapy. Ocular and iatrogenic risk factors of dry eye disease include blepharitis, Demodex infestation, ocular surgery, blink completeness, contact lens wear, and topical ophthalmic medications. A range of modifiable lifestyle factors that can increase the risk of dry eye disease have also been identified, including low humidity environments, digital screen use, quality of sleep, diet, and eye cosmetic wear. Dry eye is a common disease affecting millions globally. Increasing knowledge regarding its associated risk factors can better prepare the eye care practitioner to successfully manage patients with this ocular surface disease.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/medicina60091458","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,9,5]],"date-time":"2024-09-05T08:36:08Z","timestamp":1725525368000},"page":"1458","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":118,"title":["Epidemiology and Risk Factors of Dry Eye Disease: Considerations for Clinical Management"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"60","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1101-2870","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Alexis Ceecee","family":"Britten-Jones","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Optometry and Vision Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, Dentistry and Health Sciences, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC 3010, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8334-3911","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Michael T. M.","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Ophthalmology, Aotearoa New Zealand National Eye Centre, The University of Auckland, Auckland 1023, New Zealand"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0909-1706","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Isaac","family":"Samuels","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Ophthalmology, Aotearoa New Zealand National Eye Centre, The University of Auckland, Auckland 1023, New Zealand"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1301-2989","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Catherine","family":"Jennings","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Ophthalmology, Aotearoa New Zealand National Eye Centre, The University of Auckland, Auckland 1023, New Zealand"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7203-5443","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Fiona","family":"Stapleton","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Optometry and Vision Science, Faculty of Medicine and Health, UNSW Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2052, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8297-5319","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jennifer P.","family":"Craig","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Ophthalmology, Aotearoa New Zealand National Eye Centre, The University of Auckland, Auckland 1023, New Zealand"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,9,5]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"276","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jtos.2017.05.008","article-title":"TFOS DEWS II Definition and Classification Report","volume":"15","author":"Craig","year":"2017","journal-title":"Ocul. 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