{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,19]],"date-time":"2026-10-19T08:24:57Z","timestamp":1792398297702,"version":"4.4.0"},"reference-count":126,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,2,28]],"date-time":"2025-02-28T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1740700800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Medicina"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The integration of artificial intelligence (AI) in ophthalmology is transforming the field, offering new opportunities to enhance diagnostic accuracy, personalize treatment plans, and improve service delivery. This review provides a comprehensive overview of the current applications and future potential of AI in ophthalmology. AI algorithms, particularly those utilizing machine learning (ML) and deep learning (DL), have demonstrated remarkable success in diagnosing conditions such as diabetic retinopathy (DR), age-related macular degeneration, and glaucoma with precision comparable to, or exceeding, human experts. Furthermore, AI is being utilized to develop personalized treatment plans by analyzing large datasets to predict individual responses to therapies, thus optimizing patient outcomes and reducing healthcare costs. In surgical applications, AI-driven tools are enhancing the precision of procedures like cataract surgery, contributing to better recovery times and reduced complications. Additionally, AI-powered teleophthalmology services are expanding access to eye care in underserved and remote areas, addressing global disparities in healthcare availability. Despite these advancements, challenges remain, particularly concerning data privacy, security, and algorithmic bias. Ensuring robust data governance and ethical practices is crucial for the continued success of AI integration in ophthalmology. In conclusion, future research should focus on developing sophisticated AI models capable of handling multimodal data, including genetic information and patient histories, to provide deeper insights into disease mechanisms and treatment responses. Also, collaborative efforts among governments, non-governmental organizations (NGOs), and technology companies are essential to deploy AI solutions effectively, especially in low-resource settings.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/medicina61030433","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,2,28]],"date-time":"2025-02-28T06:45:42Z","timestamp":1740725142000},"page":"433","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":59,"title":["Enhancing Ophthalmic Diagnosis and Treatment with Artificial Intelligence"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"61","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0188-9836","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"David B.","family":"Olawade","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Allied and Public Health, School of Health, Sport and Bioscience, University of East London, London E16 2RD, UK"},{"name":"Department of Research and Innovation, Medway NHS Foundation Trust, Gillingham ME7 5NY, UK"},{"name":"Department of Public Health, York St John University, London YO31 7EX, UK"},{"name":"School of Health and Care Management, Arden University, Arden House, Middlemarch Park, Coventry CV3 4FJ, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kusal","family":"Weerasinghe","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Research and Innovation, Medway NHS Foundation Trust, Gillingham ME7 5NY, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mathugamage Don Dasun Eranga","family":"Mathugamage","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"National Eye Hospital, Colombo 01000, Sri Lanka"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8509-0460","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Aderonke","family":"Odetayo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Nursing, Tung Wah College, Hong Kong SAR, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Nicholas","family":"Aderinto","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medicine and Surgery, Ladoke Akintola University of Technology, Ogbomoso 210214, Nigeria"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jennifer","family":"Teke","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Research and Innovation, Medway NHS Foundation Trust, Gillingham ME7 5NY, UK"},{"name":"Faculty of Medicine, Health and Social Care, Canterbury Christ Church University, Canterbury CT1 1QU, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2512-6131","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Stergios","family":"Boussios","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Research and Innovation, Medway NHS Foundation Trust, Gillingham ME7 5NY, UK"},{"name":"Faculty of Medicine, Health and Social Care, Canterbury Christ Church University, Canterbury CT1 1QU, UK"},{"name":"School of Cancer & Pharmaceutical Sciences, King\u2019s College London, Strand, London WC2R 2LS, UK"},{"name":"Kent Medway Medical School, University of Kent, Canterbury CT2 7NZ, UK"},{"name":"Department of Medical Oncology, Medway NHS Foundation Trust, Gillingham ME7 5NK, UK"},{"name":"AELIA Organization, 57001 Thessaloniki, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,2,28]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1668","DOI":"10.21275\/SR231222082955","article-title":"Innovations in Healthcare: Transforming Patient Care through Technology, Personalized Medicine, and Global Health Crises","volume":"12","author":"Matcha","year":"2023","journal-title":"IJSR"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"25","DOI":"10.1097\/IIO.0000000000000450","article-title":"Technology and Innovation in Global Ophthalmology: The Past, the Potential, and a Path Forward","volume":"63","author":"Redd","year":"2023","journal-title":"Int. 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