{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,30]],"date-time":"2026-07-30T13:16:36Z","timestamp":1785417396527,"version":"3.56.0"},"reference-count":39,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"6","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,30]],"date-time":"2026-05-30T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1780099200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Romanian Government","award":["760303_CF_80_I8_R2_AA1"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["760303_CF_80_I8_R2_AA1"]}]},{"name":"Romanian Ministry of Research, Innovation and Digitalization"},{"name":"\u201cIuliu Hatieganu\u201d University of Medicine and Pharmacy Cluj-Napoca, Romania, Department of Maxillofacial Surgery and Radiology"},{"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/051h0cw83","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Medicina"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Background and Objectives: Although the anterior mandible is generally considered a safe region for implant placement, injury to the medial lingual foramen (MLF) may result in significant vascular complications. Accurate identification of this structure is challenging due to its small size, low volumetric representation, and anatomical variability. This study aimed to evaluate the anatomical characteristics of the MLF using cone-beam computed tomography (CBCT) and to develop and validate a deep learning-based approach for its automated detection and segmentation. Materials and Methods: A total of 106 CBCT scans were retrospectively analyzed to assess the morphology and position of the MLF. Manual pixel-wise annotations of the complete canal trajectory were performed on sagittal slices and used to train convolutional neural network models based on a U-Net-derived framework. Multiple configurations, including multi-class, binary, two-dimensional, and three-dimensional approaches, were evaluated. Given the extremely limited volumetric representation of the MLF, severe class imbalance represented a major challenge during model training and evaluation. Model performance was assessed using the Dice similarity coefficient, precision, recall, and Hausdorff distance. External validation was performed on an independent dataset of 10 CBCT scans. Results: The MLF was identified in all patients, with a single canal observed in 63% of cases. The sagittal-plane binary segmentation model achieved the best performance, with a test Dice score of 0.79, precision of 0.88, and recall of 0.73. External validation demonstrated a Dice score of 0.81, precision of 0.89, and recall of 0.71. The 95th percentile Hausdorff distance was 2.6 mm, and the mean center-point localization error was 1.2 mm. The model correctly detected the MLF in 90% of external cases. Conclusions: Deep learning-based segmentation of the MLF is feasible and may support automated localization assistance during preoperative CBCT assessment. Performance was influenced by the alignment between the annotation strategy and model input, highlighting an important consideration for small-structure segmentation. Further validation on larger multicenter datasets is required before clinical implementation can be considered.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/medicina62061059","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,1]],"date-time":"2026-06-01T08:09:16Z","timestamp":1780301356000},"page":"1059","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["AI-Assisted Identification of the Medial Lingual Foramen on CBCT: A Deep Learning Approach for Preoperative Implant Assessment"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"62","author":[{"given":"Alina","family":"Ban","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery and Radiology, Iuliu Ha\u021bieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 32 Clinicilor Street, 400006 Cluj-Napoca, Romania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sorana","family":"Mure\u015fanu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery and Radiology, Iuliu Ha\u021bieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 32 Clinicilor Street, 400006 Cluj-Napoca, Romania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1387-0921","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Raluca","family":"Roman","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery and Radiology, Iuliu Ha\u021bieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 32 Clinicilor Street, 400006 Cluj-Napoca, Romania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Liviu","family":"Iacob","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Computer Science, Technical University of Cluj-Napoca, 400114 Cluj-Napoca, Romania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mihaela","family":"Hede\u015fiu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery and Radiology, Iuliu Ha\u021bieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 32 Clinicilor Street, 400006 Cluj-Napoca, Romania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1073-9402","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Cristian","family":"Dinu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery and Radiology, Iuliu Ha\u021bieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 32 Clinicilor Street, 400006 Cluj-Napoca, Romania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8800-4935","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Oana","family":"Alm\u0103\u015fan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Prosthetic Dentistry and Dental Materials, Iuliu Ha\u021bieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 400006 Cluj-Napoca, Romania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"name":"on behalf of Team Project Group","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,30]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"93","DOI":"10.1111\/cid.12080","article-title":"The Midline Mandibular Lingual Canal: Importance in Implant Surgery: Implants Near the Midline Mandibular Lingual Canal","volume":"17","author":"Fourie","year":"2015","journal-title":"Clin. 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